Aceh, with the official name of Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD), is a province on the extreme west of Indonesia's island of Sumatra. The province is entitled the status of special autonomy (Daerah Otonomi Khusus) together with the province of Papua in Irian Jaya. [1] In the last four decades, Aceh has been one of Indonesia's provinces that has had a large number of grievances that emerge in the form of growing separatist movements against Jakarta. The Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka, or GAM) has openly rebelled against the central goverment, in which Jakarta has declared and conducted military operations for many decades to crush GAM that was led by Teuku Hasan Tiro from his exile in Sweden. Hasan Tiro was a political ideolog who was able to construct the Aceh subnational identity that fueled aspirations for the struggle for independence from Jakarta.
Counterinsurgency operations have been conducted in Aceh and, consequently the small wars in the province have had widespread impact on the society in the form of a growing conflict cycle that demanded cost of life and brought misery for the people of Aceh. Aceh had become the area of the military battleground between the Indonesian Military (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, or TNI) vs GAM that claimed thousands of people killed. The consequence of military conflict had a tremendous impact on the social landscape and social cohesion in Aceh as a whole, with deep humanitarian concern as well as psychological consequences that destroy the life of the people in Aceh. The violence in the province of Aceh has pushed people to flee their homes for a safe life. In this conflict it was uneasy for the Acehnese society to stay neutral politically between the rebel group and the Indonesian military.
It is significant to record in the history of conflict in Aceh that was finally transformed into peace following the Tsunami and the political will of both sides to solve the problem peacefully. The Tsunami that destroyed the province has been seen as a window of opportunity to create peace in Aceh and end the rebellion and the military operations. While the Helsinki Accord has been achieved as a landmark of current peace in Aceh, there is a general feeling that following the Tsunami, the grave humanitarian consequences will make both the Indonesian governent and GAM to be considered immoral if they were not to rush into a peace agreement.
Humanitarian concerns in Aceh have emerged as a consequence of two causes: conflict, and disaster. Conflict-induced or disaster-induced, both feature the problem of Internally Displaced Peoples (IDPs) in Aceh. There has been a question whether the Tsunami disaster has contributed to the achievement of the peace process in Aceh. Had there been no Tsunami, would the peace process have been achieved in Aceh? Beyond the debate about this matter, one thing that needs to be appreciated is the commitment of leaders on the Indonesian side to commit to a peace deal instead of continuing military operations to crush GAM, that has suffered substantially in logistic terms from the Tsunami.
Significantly, the willingness of GAM to abandon military means and agree to a peace settlement contributed significantly to the peace process. It was also morally difficult for Jakarta to continue counterinsurgency operations while the humanitarian operations were needed to respond to the disaster in Aceh. The leadership in the government was generally that of Vice President Jusuf Kalla, who was personally committed to pushing the peace process in Aceh [2] through the involvement of the Crisis Management Initiatives (CMI) led by former Finnish President Martti Ahtisaari to bring peace to Aceh through the Helsinki Agreement. The previous peace process was facilitated by the Henry Dunant Centre (HDC) with the Cesession of Hostilities Agreement (COHA) which was not successful. Since then, progress has been achieved, such as decommissioning for both GAM and the Indonesian military, amnesty and the release of political prisoners, ratification of the Law on Governing Aceh, and the transition to democratic governing in 2007.
Conflict- and Disaster-induced IDPs
A major earthquake and the Tsunami that occurred on 26 December 2004 caused vast damage, destruction and loss of life, making a bad situation even worse. The World Bank (2008) summarizes the effect of the Tsunami in Aceh as follows.
The 2004 tsunami caused damage to a very severe physically along the coast of Aceh, with 130,000 people died and 37,000 are still missing. In addition, more than half million people became IDP due to disaster. The damage and losses estimated at U.S. $ 4.8 billion and productive sectors have suffered damage estimated at U.S. $ 1.2 billion, with more than 100,000 small businesses were destroyed and more than 60,000 farmers have been displaced at least temporarily. [3]
Map 1 IDPs in Aceh (March 2005)
Source: Rencana Induk Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi Propinsi Aceh dan Sumatra Utara (trans.: "Master Plan for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of the Aceh Province and North Sumatra"), pp. I.2-3.
The conflict and Tsunami together resulted in massive displacement in the whole territory of Aceh. A study conducted in 2005 (Map 1) estimated the total number of displaced at nearly 350,000 people. Districts along the coast have a much greater number of refugees than the middle regions (Aceh Tengah, Bener Meriah and Aceh Tenggara), which indicates that the Tsunami is a major cause of displacement. Combined IDPs are the largest in Pidie District on the north coast with a total 65,000 people, Aceh Barat (53,000), and Aceh Besar (40,000), both on the northwest coast. Among the refugees, males (52 percent) showed a slightly greater percentage than women (48 percent). The proportion of refugee men reached 56 percent in certain locations in the city of Banda Aceh and 55 percent in Aceh Besar, while women showed a greater percentage in Langsa (53 percent) and in Central Aceh (54 percent), located in central areas and, therefore, determined almost solely by the conflict. On a more positive note, the relocation of refugees occurred very quickly.
In 2009, it was reported that less than 0.1 percent (or 2,600 residents) are still considered as refugees. Conflict and natural disasters also changed the structure of many families in Aceh. The number of refugees reached 167,000 women, 14,319 of whom are widows and 20,751 as heads of the family. More broadly, according to recent data, there are approximately 148,000 widows in Aceh in the year 2007. The proportion of widowed heads of households in the province is higher than the national average. This is another result of conflicts, where a greater number of men were killed. Similarly, the percentage of family heads who are also widows in Aceh is higher than the national average.
The conflict has led many Acehnese to flee from the province and stay in other provinces and many of them fled to Malaysia that was seen as a safe haven for the Acehnese. There was no exact figure found of the number of the conflict-induced IDPs, with the exception of the pre-Tsunami period when the degree of violent conflict in Aceh was increasing and many non-Acehnese (especially the Javanese) came to Aceh under a program of transmigration during Soeharto's regime.
Armed conflicts between GAM and TNI, which lasted more than 30 years, caused the death of 15,000 people and displaced more than 30,000 families (World Bank, 2007). Conflict has also caused widespread destruction of physical infrastructure and hampered the provision and maintenance of public services by the government. Adverse effects on social structures in Aceh, in addition to exacerbating horizontal and vertical inequalities in the population, is a serious challenge for efforts to improve their living conditions. In the three decades after the declaration of independence by GAM, Aceh's progress towards human development has decreased as compared with other provinces in Indonesia and poverty has increased. [4]
Before the Tsunami, the figure of conflict-induced IDPs who reside in shelters in June 2003 reached 62,432 inhabitants. [5] The largest number of refugees was in Bireun District, of 16,666 inhabitants. The rest were scattered in various areas such as South Aceh, East Aceh and Pidie. Some of the areas had improved and safer communities began to be empowered. Even so, not all areas can be empowered, as the conditions are still volatile. In Aceh, conflict-induced displacement was temporary because the counterinsurgency operations were in sweeps. After the sweep, the refugees returned to their settlements and could run their activities, mostly farming. Most importantly, the extended conflict in Aceh has created a high degree of distrust and the destruction of social cohesion among the societies in Aceh province.
The Tsunami has changed the way of looking at the IDPs' problem in Aceh. Relaxing the political aspect has brought the IDPs in Aceh to be seen purely as a humanitarian matter in contrast to the era of military operations. The Tsunami was the "X" factor that partly contributed to peace in Aceh. More than that, the Tsunami that induced the changes caused an incomprehensionable degree of humanitarian problems in Aceh due to the destructive power of the combination of the biggest earthquake and Tsunami in human history.
The magnitude of the disaster can be seen from the large number of human casualties and damage to the cities of Banda Aceh, Meulaboh and many villages in the coastal areas. A total of 16 kabupaten (districts) were damaged. Of all the districts affected by the Tsunami, those that suffered the worst damage are Banda Aceh, Aceh Jaya and Aceh Besar District. As many as 654 villages (11.4 percent) were Tsunami-affected and the estimated percentage of poor families hit by the Tsunami amounted to 15.16 percent (63,977 households). The number of victims in 15 districts in the province of NAD is estimated at 126,602 dead, and 93,638 people missing. (Of these, it is estimated that some have died, or are in refugee camps outside Aceh.) The number of IDPs up to March 21, 2005 was as many as 514,150 people in 21 districts/cities (Table 1). [6]
Table 1 IDPs in Kabupaten (Districts) in Aceh Province
No.
District/City
No. of IDPs
House/Shelter
Barrack/Temporary Shelter
Total
1
Banda Aceh
48,360
1,561
49,921
2
Aceh Besar
91,157
6,328
97,485
3
Sabang
3,712
-
3,712
4
Pidie
74,404
11,456
85,860
5
Bireuen
16,768
3,035
19,803
6
Aceh Utara
26,662
150
27,112
7
Lhokseumawe
952
1,542
2,494
8
Aceh Timur
13,182
527
13,709
9
Langsa
6,156
-
6,156
10
Aceh Tamiang
3,224
-
3,224
11
Aceh Jaya
38,217
2,205
40,122
12
Aceh Barat
70,804
1,885
72,689
13
Nagan Raya
16,560
180
17,010
14
Aceh Barat Daya
3,480
-
3,480
15
Aceh Selatan
16,148
-
16,148
16
Aceh Singkil
-
105
105
17
Semeulue
18,009
-
18,009
18
Bener Meriah
648
-
648
19
Aceh Tengah
5,288
-
5,288
20
Gayo Lues
234
-
234
21
Aceh Tenggara
611
-
611
Source: Rencana Induk Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi Propinsi Aceh dan Sumatra Utara (trans.: "Master Plan for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Aceh Province and North Sumatra"), pp. I.2-3.
Resettlement of IDPs
Efforts to help the IDPs within the overall framework of disaster management and response has been initiated by the national and international communities. However, the magnitude of the problem and its complexity pose difficulties in solving it, as the issue of resettlement is actually not only the physical aspect but, many aspects relating to culture, norms, legal and other practices that hamper the overall process. The government policy on resettlement was part of the overall policy of the Masterplan for Rebuilding of the Province of Aceh that was officially released in April 2005. [7]
The resettlement of IDPs was part of the overall reconstruction following the Tsunami in the terribly complex humanitarian emergency situation. The Indonesian goverment allocated substantial funds within the national budget with the support of many donors for the megaproject of rebuilding and reconstruction of Aceh after the Tsunami. The resettlement of those displaced from their homes quickly surfaced as a central concern of the Indonesian government authorities, IDPs themselves, and international humanitarian organizations. However, the issue of resettlement of the IDPs also needs to be seen within the macro-context of the underlying problem and its political landscape.
The Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the Indonesian government and GAM [8] provide a mandate for the Indonesian government to pursue peace and conduct reintegration to the ex-GAM combatants. Some of the programs related to the amnesty and reintegration are as follows.
Granting political rights, social and economic benefits to ex-GAM combatants who receive Amnesty get back the Indonesian (RI) nationality for those who left their nationality during the conflict.
Allocation of funds to ease the reintegration of former GAM combatants eonomically, political prisoners who have received amnesty, and affected communities.
Allocation of funds for the rehabilitation of public and private property destroyed or damaged by the conflict to be managed by the Aceh government.
Allocation of farming land, employment and social security for former GAM prisoners and civilians who were affected by the conflict.
Establishment of a joint commission for claim settlement by the government of Aceh and the government of Indonesia.
Granting rights for ex-GAM combatants to obtain employment in the police and military forces in Aceh without discrimination and according to national standards.
Reconstruction and International Role
The massive scale of disaster in Aceh has invited global solidarity in helping the victims. International communities-individuals, companies, international NGOs and multilateral organizations-are focusing their attention to help and rebuild the province of Aceh. Many organizations are working to help the IDPs and help them to return. However, since most of their homes were destroyed, there must be a house to be built before their return. As a consequence, many humanitarian NGOs, local and international, were stationed in Aceh to help the IDPs and build temporary shelters for them.
There are two mechanisms that have been established to address the two disasters in Aceh (natural and political) which are the establishment of: (1) the ad-hoc Agency for Recovery and Reconstruction of Aceh (Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi Aceh, or BRR); and (2) Aceh Peace Reintegration Agency (Badan Reintegrasi-Damai Aceh, or BRA). The task for rehabilitation and reconstruction of Aceh region of those who are victims of the Tsunami tragedy was conducted by the creation of BRR of Aceh-Nias, which was formed on April 30, 2005 pursuant to Regulation No. 2/2005. As a super-body, BRR has been given the full authority and mandate to manage the substantial funds. The total funds entrusted to the BRR since its establishment until the end of 2009 are Rp 25 trillion (US$3 billion).
BRA was formed in February 2006 to provide social support to communities affected by conflict, by providing funds for economic empowerment to the former TNA, former political prisoners and detainees, the conflict-affected communities (including non-TNA GAM, GAM who surrendered prior to the MoU, and members of the anti-separatist groups). BRA opened representative offices in all districts and municipalities in Aceh. In addition, there are also a number of national and international donor agencies that support the process of reintegration and post-conflict reconstruction in Aceh. [9]
The international donor agencies also set up a Multi-Donor Trust Fund (MDTF) to jointly coordinate to help the process of reconstruction of Aceh, while the Indonesiajn government set up the BRR in 2005 to address the overall aspect of reconstruction of post-Tsunami Aceh. The BRR was aimed at speeding up the process of reconstruction instead of the normal bureaucracy. The mandate of BRR was until 2008. Despite the great criticism it received, it has helped to speed up the process of reconstruction to include the resettlement of the IDPs by building more than 160,000 houses, against the target of 90,000 houses. [10]
Finally, the challenge to resettlement of IDPs in Aceh is more complex than merely being a matter of technical and procedural aspects. Resettlement is not only a matter of how the houses have been physically built but, it also relates to the government's commitment and how to implement it on the ground. It also relates to how communication between the government and the people could be set up, and how local culture and tradition must be upheld. In the case of post-Tsunami resettlement, the goverment has commitment and funds, but challenges remain at the operational level that relate to socio-cultural matters and issues of land-titles that also need to be resolved. Most importantly, protection of the daily livelihood is crucial for sustainable and peaceful settlement. Without creating jobs, it will put the IDPs in a vulnerable condition despite having been resettled. Last, issues of resettlement and overall rebuilding of Aceh face the daunting challenge of the governance issue, where corruption is still rampant in bureaucracy.
