Hazards exist in most occupations. The importance lies in recognizing the hazards and how to react in order to minimize them to reduce risks of accidents, injuries and ill health at the workplace. The construction industry is considered as an accident prone industry as reported by Haslam et al, (2005). Maiti, (2007) mentioned that Snook, (1982) had first highlighted that the activities associated with the construction industry are potential risk area. Kines et al, (2007) stated that the construction industry is regarded as the most hazardous industry because of its unique nature all across world. Many operations are involved in the construction industry that give rise to hazards which are risky, dangerous and unhealthy. It has been found during the first International Conference on Construction in the 21st century in USA (2002), that the number of injuries, accidents and work-related illnesses that have been reported due to high hazards rates exceed that of the manufacturing and other industries.
As stipulated by the US Department of labor, Bureau of labor statistics, an average of one death and 167 injuries occur per $100,000 of annual construction spending. The construction industry is statistically one of the most hazardous industries and is ranked low in safety. Also, according to the first International Conference on Construction in the 21st Century (2002), adapted by Hinze et al (1993), it is found that one out of every six construction workers can be expected to be injured every year. Moreover, according to OSHA, nearly 6.5 people work at approximately 252, 000 construction sites worldwide on any given day. The fatal injury and illness rate for the construction industry is higher than the national average in this category for all industries. Based on the SOCSO report (2000), it has been found that the fatality rate in the construction industry in Malaysia was of more than 3 times of all workplaces. It has also been noticed that Spain shows the highest accident rates of the EU, although fatal accidents have decreased in the last 10 years. (Miguel et al. 2008, adapted by Sese et al. 2002).
Furthermore, construction workers normally build, repair, maintain, modify and renovate buildings. According to ILO, the construction industry is considered as government and private sector firms that erect buildings for various purposes. It has been noticed that a large portion of construction workers are unskilled individuals and others are classified in any of the several trades. Hence, the workers especially the unskilled ones (the masons) have little or no awareness of the health and safety hazards that are affecting them everyday in their place of work. Nowadays, it is seen that women workers are also present at the construction sites and they are higher at risk for illnesses than the male workers. As stated by the HSE report in 2003, the illness rates among construction workers were 5 600 in 100 000 cases. The constant use of machinery and power tools, manual handling of heavy construction materials and especially working on elevated work surfaces are the hazards that have contributed in making the construction industry one of the most hazardous industry.
In a report by ILO (2009) , 2.3 million people die annually from occupational accidents and diseases around the globe, amongst which 360 000 fatalities occur due to work-related accidents and the remaining 1.95 million result from the various types of occupational diseases which are caused mainly by the presence of OH on the job site.
Kines, Spangenberg and Dyreborg (2007) have concluded that due to its nature all around the world, the construction industry is classified as the most hazardous industry.
2.2 Effects of Poor Working Conditions on Safety and Health of Workers
Poor working conditions of any type have the potential to affect a worker's health and safety.
Unhealthy or unsafe working conditions are not limited to factories - they can be found anywhere, whether the workplace is indoor or outdoor. For many workers, such as agricultural workers or miners, the workplace is "outdoor" and can pose many health and safety hazards.
Poor working conditions can also affect the environment the workers live in since the working and living milieu are the same for many workers. This means that occupational hazards can have harmful effects on workers, their families, and other people in the community, as well as on the physical environment around the workplace. A classic example is the excessive use of pesticides beyond the prescribed norms in agriculture. Workers exposed to toxic chemicals can have irreversible effects that can affect their health. When these chemicals are absorbed by the soil or leach into groundwater supplies, they adversely affect and alter the natural environment.
Overall, efforts in occupational health and safety must aim at preventing industrial accidents and diseases, and at the same time recognize the connection between worker's health and safety, the workplace, and the environment.
2.3 Importance of Occupational Safety and Health at the workplace
Work plays a central role in people's lives, since most workers spend at least eight hours a day in the workplace, be it on a plantation, in an office, factory, in the construction industry etc. Therefore, work environments should be safe and healthy. Yet this is not the case at many workplace. Every day workers all over the world are faced with a multitude of health hazards, such as: Dust; Gas; Noise; Vibration; and Extreme temperature.
Unfortunately, some employers assume little responsibility for the protection of workers' health and safety. In fact, some employers do not even know that they have the moral and often legal obligations towards their employees. As a result of the hazards and a lack of attention given to health and safety, work-related accidents and diseases are common in all parts of the world.
2.4 Hazards
The Webster's New law Dictionary (2010) define an hazard as a risk peculiar to the specific occupation or place of employment and that arises in normal work at such a job or workplace. Health and safety hazards include the likelihood of accidental injuries and diseases.
2.5 Risks
The Health and Safety Authority (2011) defines a risk as the likelihood to which a person may be harmed or suffers adverse health effects if exposed to a hazard.
2.5.1 Health and Safety hazards on a building construction site
Beginning with the passage of Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) all over the world, hazards at construction sites have drawn a great attention in the past decade. The term of hazard in reference to Oxford Advanced English Dictionary (4th Edition) means danger or risk. A hazard in this study is defined as anything that can cause harm such as scaffold, excavation, roof work, working from ladders and etc (HSE, 2005). Concern in hazard has also been initiated by escalating in compensation cost paid out, medical cost and increasing in insurance premium. There is a popular belief that the construction site is unsafe and the risk that the workers are subject to hazard is usual.
Construction work being diverse, dynamic and constantly changing, poses a great challenge in protecting the health and safety of construction workers as per a report of the Division of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH), (2011). Construction workers namely masons are at risk of exposure to multiple occupational hazards that can result in illness, injury, disability and even death.
2.5.2 Types of hazards on building construction sites
There are two major categories of hazard at construction sites namely the risk of ill health or health hazard and the risk of physical injury or physical injury hazard as stipulated in a report of Sarpin (2006).
Occupational hazards in construction work may be grouped under chemical, physical, ergonomics and biological hazards.
The agents to the above mention hazard are normally associated with process of works or equipment used and climatic conditions such as scaffolds, power access equipment and manual handling, ladder, roof work, plant and machinery, excavation, etc.
Sarpin (2006) also stated that hazard which has risk of physical injury can cause direct injury to workers and if severe can even cause death. However, hazard that has risk of ill health can only be notified after long term of period and shall cause sickness or death after certain period.
Table 2.1: Occupational hazards that can exist on a construction site
Types of hazards
Brief description of hazard mentioned
Outcomes of the hazards for masonry works
Biological hazards
Diseases or illness can occur from biological sources such as
- microorganisms: bacteria, viruses, fungi, moulds
- plant toxins
-airborne substances
Exposure may occur during demolition, renovation, sewer work, work on air, handling systems or other construction works
- skin problems: occupational dermatitis
-Suffocation
-Occupational asthma
Chemical hazards
Chemicals exist in the form of
- dusts, fumes, fibers
-gases, vapours
-liquids, mists
Chemicals are found in variety of products used at construction sites. Workers may also be exposed to chemicals generated during construction activities.
Examples: asbestos, silica, lead, cadmium, welding fumes, spray paints, solvents
-silicosis namely from cement dust known as silica dust
Physical hazards
These are different types of energy which may be hazardous to workers. They include noise, vibration, extremes temperatures, radiation, work at height
- Noise induced hearing loss
-Physical injuries caused due to fall from height
- Hand Arm vibration
Ergonomics hazards
These can cause painful and disabling injuries to joints and muscles. They can occur from
- heavy, frequent and awkward lifting
- repetitive tasks
- awkward grips, postures
-using excessive force, overexertion
- using wrong tools for the job or using the tools improperly
-hand-intensive work
-Musculoskeletal disorders
Psychosocial Hazard
This normally occur due to:
-the actual organisation
- the physical environment
- the way the organization is managed overall
- interrelationships between workers
- their own environment and the organisation
-social and personal relationships and personal anxieties
- Occupational stress
(Source: adapted from The Division of Occupational Safety and Health- DOSH, 2011.)
2.6 Risk factors in construction
Factors that increase the health and safety risks of construction workers include the constantly changing job site environment and conditions, high turnover rates and unskilled labourers, multiple contractors and subcontractors, constantly changing relationships with other groups of workers, diversity of work activities which are occurring simultaneously and exposures to health and safety hazards that result from own work as well as from nearby activities. (The Division of Occupational safety and Health, 2011. Washington State Department of Labour and Industries. Health Hazards in Construction)
2.7 Health and Safety hazards and their related outcomes for masonry works
Koningsveld and Molen (1997) adapted by Deacon (2003), relate the construction industry to a 'travelling circus', with many workers having to spend many hours commuting to and from work, as well as having to stay in temporary accommodation far from home. In a report of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) in the United Kingdom (UK) (2002), it is stated that
both employers and workers need to be aware of the health risks relative to the construction industry and how to make sure that they do not make people ill.
2.7.1 Biological hazards
2.7.1.1 Occupational Dermatitis
This disease is a major occupational health concern and is very common among cement workers. Irritant and allergic cement contact dermatitis are the two most important occupational hazards.
Cement contains the following substances: silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), iron oxide (FeO3), magnesium oxide (MgO), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and calcium oxide (CaO). Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), is formed when calcium oxide comes into contact with water. Since calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is alkaline and a pH of 11-13, it is considered to b a strong irritant of the skin and can sometimes result in skin erosion and skin necrosis.
2.7.1.1.1 Risk factors of occupational Dermatitis
Epoxy resin, colophony, formaldehyde, nickel, rubber gloves and cobalt are the common allergens affecting cement workers, however, hexavalent chromium. is more dangerous. Since cement workers are always in contact with cement, they are prone to dermatitis and they may take time to recover. They have to deal with cements every day and therefore they do not find it necessary to visit a physician. It has been studied that in Taiwan, there are 16.5% of male workers and 7.2% of female workers show the symptoms of chromium hypersensitivity because of cement exposure which forms part of their daily tasks.
2.7.1.2 Occupational Asthma
When people are exposed to substances in the workplace, they develop allergic reaction known as Occupational asthma. These substances include 'respiratory sensitisers', or asthmagens and they react in people's airways to cause the 'hypersensitivity state'. Not everyone is prone to develop asthma, however, when the lungs undergo hypersensitivity, further exposure to even small amount of the substances may trigger an attack. Respiratory sensitizers react most in person suffering from asthma.
According to Hodgson et al.-Health and Safety Executive, HSE (1993), results of a sample questionnaire in 1990 Labor Force Survey have shown that about 70,000 people in UK believe that in 1 year period, substances breathed at work have led to asthma. Therefore, we can conclude the substances are the common causes of work-related ill-health and new cases of occupational lung disease. After the investigation of Meredith and McDonald (1994), it has been noted that SWORD scheme is responsible in collecting UK information about the newly diagnosed cases followed by their causes.
2.7.1.2.1 Risk Factors Causing Occupational Asthma
The most common causes of respiratory symptoms are Building renovation, cleaning and insulation with mineral fiber materials. Many workers experience symptoms due to cold air, physical exercise and all types of dust and smoke. The everyday life and work of construction workers are obstructed due to occupational asthma. The causes of asthmatic symptoms among construction workers are exposure to dusts and non-sensitizing agents.
2.7.2 Chemical hazards
2.7.2.1 Cement dust and Silicosis
In the construction industry, many activities such as concrete mixing, concrete tunneling, brick and concrete block cutting and sawing involve the generation of cement dust also know as silica dust as per the Masco Masons Supply (2012). Silica dust in the long term exposure causes silicosis and other diseases such as tuberculosis and lung cancer. Wickman (2012) stated that masons can be exposed to silica dust depend on the task they perform. Masons who are involve in wet tasks, such as laying blocks in mortar or wet cutting of blocks, are less exposed. Masons who carry out supporting tasks, such as mortar mixers and block runners, typically are not overexposed if they avoid areas where cement dust or concrete is apparently present in the air. Wickman (2012) also stipulated that masons who dry concrete or cut blocks normally have unsafe exposures up to 10 times the OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit (OSHA PEL). Exposure at this level can produce lung disease over a period of 10 years or more. Masons who grind out existing mortar joints prior to tuck pointing brick walls can have exposures that exceed 50 times the OSHA PEL. Exposures at this level may cause lung disease over a period of several months to 10 years, (Wickman, 2012). Silicosis is therefore known as a type of pneumoconiosis, sometimes result in fatal lung disease may result because deposition of silica particles in lung tissue occurs, leading to fibrotic changes. "Miners' asthma", "potters rot", "phthisis", "stonemason's disease" and "sewer disease" are historically known to arise from accumulation of silica dust in the lungs. In granite industry, dust inhalation was recognized as a serious health problem by the 1920s. Respiratory crystalline silica (RCS) exposure is very common in a large variety of industries and occupations and is associated with silicosis, lung cancer and other diseases.
2.7.2.1.1 Risk Factors Causing Silicosis
In the mid-1980s, the pathology and toxicology of crystalline silica was studied and the result reveal that freshly-fractured crystalline silica is more toxic than the aged-fractured one. Castranova V, Pailles WH, Dala NS, et al. (1996) have confirmed that the toxicity of crystalline silica is important for many construction industries in which many of high risk exposures involve the fracture of crystalline silica particles. In 1992, the development of a policy document has helped to provide support to NIOSH testimony on crystalline silica toxicity by the review and summary of health effects of occupational exposure to respiratory crystalline silica including cancer.
Furthermore, based on the re-analysis of data of the diatomaceous earth worker study, two peer-reviewed quantitative risk assessments for lung cancer mortality, nonmalignant respiratory disease (NMRD) mortality and morbidity (Rice et al. 2001; Park et al.2002) were completed and published by the Construction Program. This information was published by the partners at the University of Washington stated by Checkoway et al. (1997).
Chipping, hammering, drilling of rock, abrasive blasting using silica sand as the abrasive, sawing, demolition of concrete and masonry structures, dry sweeping or pressurized air blowing of concrete, rock and sand are the common exposures involved in the disruption of materials containing crystalline silica. There may be the presence of silica dust, sandstone mining and granite mining during the process of specific masonry.
2.7.3 Physical Hazards
2.7.3.1 High Noise Exposure and Noise Induced Hearing Loss
According to AIHA journal (63), more than one-half million construction workers are exposed to potentially hazardous levels of noise. Since construction work involves extensive use of power tools and heavy equipment, harmful noise exposures are common. The construction workers are at risk of unsafe level of noise. (http://www2a.cdc.gov/drds/WorldReportData/pdf/Table01-06.pdf ). The risk of material hearing impairment is significantly higher than for industrial workers and increases with the duration of trade work. Hearing loss caused by exposure to noise is prevalent among construction workers, with a life time probability of developing hearing loss averaging 60 % among all trades and up to 80 % in some trade according to Dement et al. (2005). Hearing loss was classified as an important problem at national construction conferences in the early of the Construction Program and it has been a priority issue for interventions and research. Hearing loss is normally well understood and measurement of exposures and primary health effects is relatively straightforward.
2.7.3.2 Work at Height and Fall from Height
The poor physical control over an activity or environment and management failings can arise from a fall from height.
In Netherlands, occupational fatalities and injuries are considered as serious public problem and as the main occupational accidents. These accidents can lead to death depending on the place and the height. Reported accidents in Netherlands have shown that 28% results from falls from height while the number of deaths is on average 25 per year.
2.7.3.2.1 Risk Factors for Fall From Height
Based on the research of Personick (1990), NIOSH (1999), Lowery et al. (2000), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Okun et al. (2001), Suruda et al. (2003), Fredericks et al. (2005) and Bureau of Labor Statistics, BLS (2007a), it has been concluded that roofing is known to be one of the most hazardous areas in the construction industry. Hsiao and Simeonoy (2001), Fredericks et al. (2005) and Bureau of Labor Statisstics, BLS (2007b) have said roof work is considered to be laborious since it constitutes of climbing and walking at different roof inclinations. Installation of roofing, siding and sheet metal work are the tasks of roofers.
In construction industries, it is very common to see falls from ladders, scaffold and unguarded building edges. Masons have the tendency to concentrate more on their tasks than on their safety while working and as a result the probability of their falling increases. Masons who lack knowledge and training about using scaffold and ladders, increase their chance of falling.
2.7.3.2.2 Health Effects for Fall from Height
The most commonly injured systems after a falling are the brain, spinal cord and extremities. Many masons often get bruises, injuries, fractures, incapacity and handicap. Falls from height usually results when they are performing their tasks due to lack of precaution measures or can be even be an accident. Fatalities do occur sometimes and this is very discouraging for the construction industry. Masons do work on scaffold when assigning their tasks.
2.7.3.3 Power Tools and Hand Arm Vibration
It is an occupational hazard to workers and is arisen from the usage of hand-held mechanical equipment. Workers from industries such as construction, manufacturing, engineering and maintenance are often victims of this kind of disease. The development of occupational diseases such as vibration white finger (VWF) can result from prolonged exposure to hand arm vibration. EU-OSHA (2008) has estimated that one in four European workers is exposed to hand arm vibration.
In order to protect workers from the irreversible HAV conditions, EU Directive made the first step in 2002. This was combined into health and safety legislation within UK in 2005. The way that HAV was managed greatly depends on the control of vibration at work regulations. Therefore, the managed HAV has practical and financial consequences on construction, civil engineering and highways workers due to the prevalence of mechanized equipment.
2.7.3.3.1 Risk Factors Leading To Hand-Arm Vibration
Regular use of hand-held or hand-guided power tools and machines such as: concrete breakers, concrete pokers, sanders, grinders, disc cutters; hammer drills, chipping hammers, chainsaws, brush cutters, hedge trimmers, powered mowers, scabblers or needle guns, are the risk factors of HAV. Masons are obliged to work with tools to perform their tasks since it would be time consuming without the tools.
2.7.3.3.2 Health Effects of Hand Arm Vibration
This syndrome involves the circulatory disorders such as vibration white finger, sensory and motor disorders and musculoskeletal disorders which arise from the use of vibrating handheld tools such as pneumatic drills, grinders, electric drills and saws, and jackhammers noted by Weir and Lander (2005).
The compression of the median nerve which passes through the carpal tunnel in the wrist can result into Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) since the median nerve is found beneath palmaris longus tendon anterior to the flexor tendons and can be easily damaged. Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a peripheral mono-neuropathy of the upper limb. There are conditions which decrease the tunnel's size, or swell the structures contained within it, compress the median nerve against the transverse ligament bounding the tunnel's roof. The circumstances can arise from trauma or systemic or inflammatory effects. Diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, acromegaly, hypothyroidism, pregnancy and tenosynovitis are the main causes of CTS. Attention is given to well-established and suspected risk factors at the workplace followed by the compensation, prevention and optimum management of work-associated cases.
2.7.3.3.3 Symptoms of Hand Arm Vibration
The appearance of symptoms varies from people to people, for some people it takes some months and for others it takes years. Repeated exposure can worsen the symptoms can lead to permanent damage and disfigurement. Limitation of one's job along with family and social activities are affected.
Tingling and numbness of the fingers, that is, the inability to feel things properly in the fingers form part of the symptoms.
The effects of these symptoms on people include:pain, distress and disturbed sleep; inability to do fine work (e.g. assembling small components) or everyday tasks (eg fastening buttons); reduced ability to work in cold or damp conditions (i.e. most outdoor construction work), which is likely to trigger a painful finger blanching attack; and reduced grip strength, which might affect the ability to work safely.
2.7.4 Ergonomic Hazards
2.7.4.1 Musculoskeletal disorders
Manual handling of loads involves the use of the human body to lift, lower, fill, empty, or carry loads as per Mahamed (2006). Masons usually carry blocks and also iron bars at long distances which form part of their daily tasks. Many masons complain of shoulder pain when lifting blocks for the purpose of block laying or even when plastering the wall. Manual handling contributes to musculoskeletal disorder which is a serious concern. Mahamed (2006, adapted from a report of the National Institute of Occupational safety and Health, 1997 ) defines musculoskeletal disorder as an alteration in an individual's sense of wellness or ability to function that involves the tendons, nerves, muscles and supporting structure of the body, which may or may not be associated with well recognised anatomic, physiologic and psychiatric pathology. The musculoskeletal disorder covers any injury, damage or disorder of the joints or other tissues in the upper/lower limbs or the back. Most work-related musculoskeletal disorders develop over time and are caused either by the work itself or by the employees' working environment.
In 2007, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has noted that the incident rate of musculoskeletal disorders among construction workers is 41.4 per 10,000 workers which are higher than all industries with a rate of 35.4 per 10,000 workers. 75.4 per 10,000 full time workers were victims of back injuries and illnesses in masonry industry in 2005. According to CPWR (2008), 43 per 10,000 full time workers in bricklayers were victims of overexertion injuries and were ranked sixth. Stenlund et al. (1993), Cook et al. (1996), CSAO (2003) and CPWR (2008) have affirmed that extremity pain and other musculoskeletal disorders are common in the masonry trade.
Static postures are common in masonry work and can result in fatigue and injuries over time. Physical efforts are strongly required in the field of masonry. Masons spent most of their energies in lifting heavy building materials such as concrete block. In order to lift higher layers or over vertical rebar, they depend on their arms. After making his research, Holmstrom (1992) has claimed that shoulder discomfort can result from working with hands above shoulder in many construction trades. Nimbarte et al. (2010) mentioned in his report that regular masonry work involves lifting of heavy cement bags and lifting of blocks at or above shoulder level which results in pain in neck and shoulder. Nimbarte et al. (2010, adapted by Guo et al. 2004) also found that the construction industry in among the top ten industries for high risk MSD among Taiwanese workers.
The physically demanding nature of construction work, static postures, vibration, harsh outdoor environment and related risk factors are responsible for the increase the risk of musculoskeletal injury. According to Schneider (2001) and Center to Protect Workers' Rights (2002), conclusions can be drawn that over 37% of all injuries resulting in days away from work and explain why strains and sprains are most common type of injury in constructions.
It was summarized by BLS (2005) that out of 10,000 full time workers, 100 suffer from back injuries compared to other workers which make up 70. Moreover, 105 workers are injured by over-extension compared to 69 in other sectors of construction out of 10,000 full time workers.
The fact that 62% of over-exertion injuries among bricklayers are back injuries and 35% accounts for upper extremity injuries was confirmed by the Construction Safety Association of Ontario, CSAO (2003). Compared to 25% for all construction workers, 50% of the injuries were seen to arise from manual material handling. After the research of Sturmer et al. (1997) and Latza et al. (2002), it can be concluded that 40% of masons show back pain and other musculoskeletal symptoms with a 12-month prevalence of low back disorders and 50% prevalence of shoulder disorders according to Stenlund et al. (1992, 1993). The study of Goldsheyder et al. (2002) has confirmed that 80% of masons are reported to be subjects of MSDs in a year.
2.7.4.1.1 Risk Factors Leading To Musculoskeletal Disorder
The weight of bricks or blocks, the frequency of lifting, the height from which blocks are picked up, the height at which the blocks are placed, the height of the mortar stand, the distance of the block from the worker's body, degree and frequency of twisting involved and high expected production rates are the main causes for back injuries that has been approved by Entzel et al. (2007). Shoulder stresses were affirmed by Binkhorst (1989), Vink and Koningsveld(1990) and Van der Molen et al. (1998) to arise from laying brick and block above shoulder height.
Reports made by researchers of the Construction Safety Association of Ontario, CSAO (1995) conclude that installation and manual materials handling activities account for 58% of all lost time injuries. Marks and Vi (2000) and Van der Molen et al. (2008) believe that a mason can easily lay 200 or more blocks daily and also if the blocks weigh 16.3 Kg each, 3260 Kg (3.3 tons) is the calculated weight lifted by the mason in a 8hrs workday.
Awkward posture, excessive force demands, highly repetitive actions and excessive usage of energy may give rise to stresses that can cause a variety of occupational health problems.
After analyzing the risk factors related to building construction activities in India among female workers, manual handling operations were improved to reduce costs and to improve productivity and morale to attain less wastage and smoother operations.
NOSHSC (1998) have claimed that musculoskeletal injuries due to manual tasks of Australian Industries account for 40%.
2.7.5 Psychosocial Hazards
2.7.5.1 Occupational Stress
The construction site is considered as being a very stressful environment to work in as mentioned by Smallwood and Ehrlich (1997) and Akkers (1999). There are numerous causes that exist and they include aspects such as the actual organisation, the physical environment, the way the organization is managed overall, interrelationships between workers, their own environment and the organisation, as well as social and personal relationships and personal anxieties. In addition, depression, heart disease and anxiety, burnout and low self-esteem are a number of the negative outcomes of such stress and stressors as per Smallwood and Ehrlich, 1997. In a study undertaken in Holland among 20 construction companies and among 35 000 workers, 50.0% of workers, namely the masons reported that they encounter considerable pressure at work and that measures were needed to reduce this high work pressure. A notable finding is that very few of the employers interviewed in this same study were of the opinion that stress was a problem (Koningsveld and Molen 1997). Moreover, according to a study undertaken in South Africa among workers on construction sites indicated that masons believed that the several steps should be taken to improve their health such as improve facilities such as toilets , reduce noise levels, improve the general tidiness on site, reduce the physical demands of the job, provide more Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), reduce dust levels, Increase lighting levels.
These issues relate to the physical environment, with the exception of the provision of PPE (Smallwood and Ehrlich, 1999).
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The chapter research methodology introduces various methods that can be used to carry out a research. Phillip Kotler (1997, Standing Room Only: Strategies for Marketing the Performing Arts, pg 124) defines research as "the systematic design, collection, analysis and reporting of data and findings relevant to a specific problem or situation facing the company". The chapter methodology is known to be one of the most significant areas of study in a project work that helps to gather information to be able to proceed with the survey. It is considered as an essential milestone in any research study.
Define the research problem and formulate the research objectives.
Determine research design
Determine data collection method and sampling design
Data collection and preparation
Analyze and interpretation of the data
Prepare the research report and final report the findings
Figure 3.1: The Various stages in a research process
[Source: Adapted from Cooper and Schindler, 2003]
3.2 Research Design
The literature review reported that there is much international research that reveals the occupational hazards that are common on building construction sites and their associated adverse health effects that affect a large population of the workers which consists mostly of the masons. No study in Mauritius has been observed regarding the health and safety hazards present on building construction sites and the health status of the workers.
The research study seeks to identify the occupational hazards and the health status of the masons through both qualitative and quantitative methods. The survey consisted of a questionnaire, which was required to be filled in by the masons. An observation was also carried out for a period of three months on a particular building construction site among the masons to know about the most critical hazards that prevail on the construction site that cause high rates of accidents, injuries and ill health.
Table 3.1 below summarizes the types of research methods used in this study.
Research methods
This is
This works best for these
kinds of questions…
This doesn't work well
for these kinds of
questions…
Qualitative
Detailed descriptions of
specific situation(s) using
interviews, observations,
document review
You describe things as
they are.
How do people implement
this program?
What challenges do people
face?
What are people's
perceptions?
Did the program cause
any changes in
participants' outcomes?
Quantitative
Numerical descriptions
(frequency, average)
You measure things as
they are.
How many people are
participating in this program?
What are the characteristics
of people in this program?
How well did participants in
this program do?
Did the program cause
any changes in
participants'
outcomes?
Why did the program
work this way?
[source: Adapted from The Serve Centre at the University of North Carolina.2008, www.serve.org] [Date Acessed:12 May 2012]
The information that have been gathered from the data obtained will be use to formulate the recommendations related to hazard minimisation in the construction industry.
3.3 Sampling Frame
The sampling frame was determined using the software RAOSOFT sample size calculator. With a population size of 110 masons on the site, a margin of error of 8%, a confidence level of 90% and a response distribution of 50%, the recommended sample size was 55 masons. Hence the interview was made among selected 55 masons using the designed questionnaire.
3.4 Questionnaire Design
In this study, data was collected from the masons through a questionnaire and the design of the questionnaire was designed according to the study of the research. Questionnaires were chosen as they have the ability to convey a large amount of information. The questions were formulated carefully so that they prove their validity, reliability and relevance to the study. The questionnaire was divided into 3 sections. The questions were short and simple. Section A consists of the general information, section B relates to the occupational hazards and the health effects and section C contain the control measures.
The questionnaire consisted of only close ended questions. Close ended questions was mostly "yes" and "no" answers. It enables a more objective analysis and a reduction in time to spend by workers in answering the questions.
3.5 Pilot Test
When questionnaires are being used, a pilot survey has to be done by pre-testing the questionnaire on a small amount of respondents under the same conditions and having the same characteristics as it would be administered to the target population. Pilot survey is defined as the trial run. The importance of doing a pilot survey was to have an overview of the difficulties that could have been encountered when the respondents answers the questions. It helps to estimate the response rate, to test the layout, wordings and the sequence of the questionnaire, and finally to test the familiarity of the questionnaire with the respondents. The questionnaire was tested by interviewing five employees and some modifications were brought by reformulating and rephrasing the questions due to misinterpretation and misunderstanding. A more simple language was then used. In addition, some questions were added upon their response.
3.6 Ethical Issues
Permission to conduct the survey was obtained from the site manager at CITADELLE MALL building construction site. The questionnaires made no reference to the name of the workers thus ensuring confidentiality and anonymity. The questionnaires and the workers participating in the survey were allocated a number that was recorder on the questionnaire for reference.
3.7 Data Collection
In order to conduct the survey on the masons, 55 of them who showed their willingness were given the questionnaire and were interviewed to gather maximum information. This was done in a co-ordinated schedule to avoid minimal disruption to their working activities. Collection of data was done personally for Mauritian workers whereas for Bangladesh and Malagasy workers , the help of the foremen were needed. This was done during a one-week period on the building construction site itself. Five questionnaires were discarded since concrete information was not obtained.
3.8 Data Analysis
Data was entered using SPSS Data Entry Builder 4.0 and analysis was performed with both SPSS 16.0 and Microsoft Office Excel 2007.
Correlation is used to test the degree of association between two variables (A and B). The coefficient of correlation ranges from -1 (maximum negative) to + 1 (maximum positive). A positive correlation suggests that as A increases, B also increases while a negative correlation suggests that as A decreases, B increases.
3.9 Limitation of the Study
3.9.1 Language Barrier
Fluency in Hindi language and Malagasy language were preferable as most of the masons were of Bangladesh or Malagasy origin. They could hardly understand English or French and hence the foremen or the leading hand had to help in conducting the interview.
3.9.2 Participation
The interview had to be conducted mostly during lunchtime, the masons were not so willing to participate, and those who participated were in a hurry to answer the questions so that their lunchtime is not disturbed
3.9.3 Time
It was time consuming to conduct the survey as most of the masons were not understanding English or French language and the support of the leading hand was needed to translate the questions and answers.
