The study explores how the CapHaz-Net Project maps different perspectives on social vulnerability. Relevant approaches and indicators have been identified to measure vulnerability. The study highlights the importance of developing a conceptual model as a basis for developing indicators measuring social vulnerability.
The study shows that social vulnerabilities may change between the different stages of the disaster cycle, and that people can move in and out of vulnerability depending on their position in the cycle. It suggests that risk and vulnerability need to be examined within a wider context, in particular the social conditions in which risk-exposed people live, think and make choices. The paper indicates that vulnerability is highly context-specific in terms of local/regional, socio-economic, demographic, legal, political and cultural contexts. It is suggested that qualitative approaches to vulnerability assessment need to be considered more frequently in order to better understand the processes and relationships contributing to social vulnerability and social capacity building and therefore, situational analysis is needed.
Working with communities to help them assess their own vulnerabilities, priorities and solutions is crucial to improving social capacity. Birkmann et al. (2009) have suggested that in the future it will be necessary to identify a basic generic framework of vulnerability, for example, by linking key components such as exposure, susceptibility and coping, with additional elements that reflect specific hazard or climate change features.
Bishawjit, M., Khan, R.R. and Joachim, V. (2011), "Social vulnerability analysis for sustainable disaster mitigation planning in coastal Bangladesh", Disaster Prevention and Management, Vol. 20, No. 3 pp. 220-237
The paper explores the sustainability and vulnerability patterns of Cyclone Sidr (Very Severe Cyclonic Strom). The opportunities and potentials of the coastal zone all over the world have not received much attention, and also the disaster mitigation approaches are seen as a curative measure rather than protective, both of which raise questions about sustainable coastal belt planning and development. What is needed is a multi-disciplinary approach to tackle the complexity of social systems, and patterns of vulnerability in those systems.
Key findings of the paper suggest that impacts of disasters vary from individual to individual, group to group and community to community. An affected community waiting for external relief and reconstruction materials attracts "dependency on relief works" that them more "vulnerable" to other calamities. In the long-run it increases the poverty ratio and pressurizes them to stay in a "vulnerability trap" in any type of calamity.
The paper concludes that a sustainable community is one that balances social inequality on one hand and equity, economic vitality, environmental responsibility and infra-structural effectiveness on the other hand. Along with infrastructural interventions alternative community based solutions should also be considered.
Mirjam, M. (2011), "Framework for community-based climate vulnerability and capacity assessment in mountain areas", Kathmandu, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)
The study provides an analytical framework and methodology for assessing environmental and socio-economic changes affecting the livelihoods of rural, natural resource dependent communities living in mountainous environments. It also gives guidance on how to gain a better understanding of the various forces which shape vulnerabilities of mountain communities, and places a special focus on the capacities inherent to these communities for coping with and adapting to environmental and socio-economic changes. The rationale of the framework is based on the assumption that in order to indentify the key determinants for future adaptation, we need to have a much better understanding of current climate change impacts, of the perception of these changes among mountain communities and of their traditional repertoire of response strategies.
Vulnerability and capacity assessment approach is a combination of the vulnerability assessment and sustainable livelihoods approaches. Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) is a tool to improve understanding of livelihoods, especially of the poor. "A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets, and activities required for a means of living. SLA approach suggests that a livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future without undermining the natural resource base" (DFID, 1999).
There is a wide consensus that women will suffer disproportionately from the impacts of climate change as a result, among others, of their comparatively weaker set of livelihoods assets (IPCC, 2007b and UNFPA, 2009). With the increasing feminization of agriculture, women are becoming the main food producers, and adaptation strategies need to be based on women's knowledge and capacities.
The study examines the following coping and adaptation mechanisms implemented by the communities:
Perception of change by communities
Experienced impacts on livelihood systems
Coping and adaptation
Potential future risks
Evan, D.G.F., Mette, T., Klaus, H., Andrew, J.D., Jan, S. and Claire, Q. (June 2010), "Assessing vulnerability to climate change in dryland livelihood systems: conceptual challenges and interdisciplinary solutions", Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy, Working Paper No. 24, University of Leeds
It is imperative that new and interdisciplinary research agendas are developed that focus on livelihood security in dynamic, complex, and risk prone environments (Reed et al., 2008). Specifically, research is needed to explore how development strategies and other socio economic changes help livelihoods become more resilient and robust at a time of growing climatic risk and uncertainty (Thompson and Scoones, 2009).
The report investigates some intellectual challenges that are:
How to conceptualize vulnerability to climate change in coupled social-ecological systems?
What are the methodological challenges and anticipating trends in vulnerability in dynamic environments?
The paper suggests that researchers interested in vulnerability must assess institutional processes. Assessment of institutions that are working in the community that allow for a collective response to a problem and exploring which groups within a society have power and are able to mobilize much needed political attention is essential.
The report also focuses on three diverse but overlapping following livelihood patterns:
An assessment of changes in the agro-ecosystem that provides livelihoods, thus providing insight into the ability of each agro-ecosystem to remain productive during an environmental problem;
An evaluation of changes in the socio-economic affluence of different groups within the livelihood system, thus providing insight into those groups that may not have the capacity to adapt themselves
An exploration of the institutional capability, thus providing insight into which regions have the potential to mobilise effective relief in the case of a crisis.
The research followed a four step methodology to assess vulnerability:
Use expert opinion and published socio-economic and environmental data to establish a back-ground narrative that describes the livelihood system and its social, institutional and ecological context.
Refine the narrative and establish a conceptual model of the livelihood system focusing on the three dimensions of vulnerability.
Conduct a three part qualitative vulnerability analysis of each livelihood system to show how the three dimensions of vulnerability had changed through time.
Conduct a quantitative vulnerability analysis where key relations in the conceptual model are expressed numerically, in order to establish hypotheses about which elements of the system would be most influential in changing future vulnerability.
It has suggested that policy targeting socio-economic factors may be more effective at reducing vulnerability caused from drought than policies targeting environmental best management.
Ivar, S.H., Paiv,i L. and Jan, K.R. (2011), "Social vulnerability assessment for Norway: A quantitative approach", Norwegian Journal of Geography, Vol. 65, pp. 1-17.
The article aims to ask some fundamental questions to identify who are vulnerable and where do they live? Social vulnerability is difficult to quantify, mainly because it involves a combination of factors that determine the degree to which someone's life, livelihood, property and other assets are put at risk by a discrete and identifiable event (or series or 'cascade' of such events) in nature or in society' (Winser et al., 2004).
The factors that influence social vulnerability range from individual characteristics such as age, health, income, employment to attributes of the whole community or region such as population growth, urbanization, economic vitality, robustness of the built environment and quality of infrastructure.
For the contextualization of first key question "who is vulnerable?" the study has developed a socio-economic vulnerability index (SVI). The index contains variables related to the population structure and socio-economic status, skill levels of the population, municipal viability, unemployment and demographics.
In order to understand the second key question, "the area where the population lives is vulnerable" the built environment vulnerability index (BEVI) is used. The index includes variables such as lifelines, settlement density and aging infra-structure.
Olli, V., Matti, K., Aura, S. (2011), "Ten Major rivers in monsoon Asia Pacific: an assessment of vulnerability", Applied Geography, Vol. 32, pp. 441-454.
The research looks at a combination of various issues, usually investigated in isolation from each other, on a sub-continental scale by using various geo-spatial databases including data on nature and environment, demography, governance, water scarcity, as well as social and economic development. Vulnerability profiles for rivers were produced. A transparent and pragmatic river basin vulnerability assessment approach was developed.
An approach for socio-economic vulnerability analysis for river basins was developed by incorporating broader developmental and governance aspects. The indices included variables such as governance, economy, social, environment, hazards and water scarcity. All the highly diverging information is summed up in a meaningful and transparent way to describe the socio-economic environmental vulnerability of each of the basins.
Emma, P. (2011), "Vulnerability, adaptation, and resilience to floods and climate change-related risks among marginal Riverine communities in Metro Manila", Asian Journal of Social Science, Vol. 39, pp. 425-445
The article examines the vulnerability, adaptation, and resilience of urban poor households living in the riverine communities of the three flood-prone areas in Metro Manila. The study found that the environmental-ecological vulnerability of the low-lying flood prone areas interacts strongly with the social vulnerability of urban poor households, highlighting the effects of climate change related challenges on this vulnerable population. The study shows that the local governments have taken precautionary measures such as infrastructure development as mitigation strategy against the floods by building river barriers and improved drainage systems. The study also reveals that how the local population has adapted to the floods by raising the floors, building makeshift bridges, build Styrofoam boats etc.
Adaptation and resilience can be seen in the ability of groups or communities to cope with external stresses and disturbances and environmental change (Adger, 2000). The exposure and coping mechanisms of groups and individuals to environmental risks, primarily in the context of climate change and flooding hazards in developing countries (Blaikie et al. 1994) can vary quite widely among different groups. Thus, the capacity of households living in flood prone areas to mitigate the effects of these hazards, in part, depend on their socio-economic capacities and the disaster preparedness of local governments, market, and civil society institutions. Therefore, it is important to map, explore and understand the capacity and characteristics of all these factors.
Mechler, R. and The Risk to Resilience Study Team, (2008): The Cost-Benefit Analysis Methodology, From Risk to Resilience Working Paper No.1, eds. Moench, M., Caspari, E. & A. Pokhrel, ISET, ISET-Nepal and Provention Kathmandu, Nepal, 32 pp.
This working paper discusses key methodological aspects and findings from cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of Disaster Risk Management (DRM) strategies in a detailed case study of the state of Uttar Pradesh (UP) in India. The paper illustrates the usefulness of CBA as a tool in DRM. It also provides an insight on the issues related to application of CBA and the difficulty in explaining the results.
Disaster events in essence are probabilistic and as a consequence benefits to risk management are also probabilistic and arise only in case of an event occurring. Accordingly, benefits should be assessed in terms of probability multiplied by the consequences, leading to an estimate of risk as the product of hazard, vulnerability and exposure. However, attempts to probabilistically estimate future disasters risks in ways that include the effects of climate change are defeated by the lack of reliable probabilistic information. Therefore, the methodological shortcuts have to be used and some assumptions were made in order to arrive at a broader understanding of key risks and benefits of DRM.
Mustafa, D., Ahmed, S., Saroch. E. and The Risk to Resilience Study Team, (2008): Pinning Down Vulnerability: Narratives to Numbers, From Risk to Resilience Working Paper No.2 eds. Moench, M., Caspari, E. & A. Pokhrel, ISET, ISET-Nepal and ProVention Kathmandu, Nepal, 28 pp.
The working paper confers upon different factors and the characteristics to be determined when developing a vulnerability index. It provides ways on how to quantitatively capture social vulnerability in order to create a more informed hazard policy.
The paper outlined some of the reasons for the lack of integration of vulnerability policy that includes dissonance between the policy-makers' concern with aggregate populations at the meso and macro national scales and the vulnerability analysts, general bias towards socially differentiated household and community levels at the micro and meso scale (Mustafa, 2004), policy-makers' social position as representatives of the prevailing political and economic structures and many vulnerability analysts' concern with fundamental inequities of the social structures and the need for systemic change (Hewitt, 1983, Wisner et al., 2004) and finally the general policy makers' need for simpler, generalized, actionable, preferably quantitative information for input into policy process not the spatially and temporally nuanced, complex, generally qualitative information directed towards understanding causation rather than prescribing action.
Optiz-Stapleton, S., Gangopadhyay, S. and the Risk to Resilience Study team, (2008): Downscaling: Potential Climate Change Impacts in the Rohini Basin, Nepal and India, From Risk to Resilience Working Paper No.3, eds. Moench, M., Caspari, E & A Pokhrel, ISET, ISET-Nepal and ProVention, Kathmandu, Nepal, 28 pp.
This working paper presents a statistical technique for downscaling climate information from general circulation models so that this information can be used as an input to economic evaluation of options for reducing flood and drought risk and responding to the impacts of climate change. The model although useful however, does not provide precise predictions, therefore should be used as a reference rather than a basis for estimating damages related to flood hazards.
Kull, D., Singh, P., Chopde, S., S. Wajih and The Risk to Resilience Study Team, (2008): Evaluating Costs and Benefits of Flood Reduction under Changing Climatic Conditions : Case of the Rohini River Basin, India, From Risk to Resilience Working Paper No. 4, eds. Moench, M., Caspari, E. & A. Pokhrel, ISET, ISET-Nepal and ProVention, Kathmandu, Nepal, 32 pp.
In this working paper, the costs and benefits under potential climate change of different flood risk reduction approaches were analyzed and compared. The paper provides a comparison of the utility, applicability and limitations of cost-benefit analysis for supporting disaster risk reduction (DRM) decision-making under changing climate.
The study concludes that although the efficiency of embankments declines with the increase of flooding, however the maintenance of these embankments under climate change projections would still be economically viable. The economic performance of embankments increases considerably if people centered interventions are implemented at the individual, community and societal levels with the goal of reducing vulnerability. The research also shows that if a logical and transparent framework for organising and reviewing assumptions from stakeholders is formed, it can help operationalise and promote dialogue and integration of policies and programmes across ministries, departments and other organisations. The advantage of adapting this approach is that it helps ensure that the strategies selected are socially and technically viable that are owned broadly by people. It is likely to generate solid economic returns.
Mechler, R., Hochrainer, S., Kull, D., Chopde, S., Singh, P., S. Wajih and The Risk to Resilience Study Team, (2008): Uttar Pradesh Drought Cost-Benefit Analysis, From Risk to Resilience Working Paper No. 5., eds. Moench, M. Caspari, E. & A. Pokhrel ISET, ISET-Nepal and ProVention, Kathmandu, Nepal, 32 pp.
The report highlights the fact that drought related disasters are the major factor contributing to endemic poverty; hence strategies for reducing droughts are central to poverty alleviation and adaptation to climate change. The study assesses the costs and benefits of disaster risk management support for helping farmers' better deal with drought risk to rice and wheat crops and subsequent income effects. The following disaster risk management (DRM) interventions considered in the report were:
Irrigation via implementation of borehole groundwater pumping. The pumping cost paid by the affected household.
Subsidized micro crop insurance
An integrated package
Some key findings of the report provide evidence of interventions:
All interventions seem economically efficient.
Irrigation benefits increase with climate change as rainfall means increased.
Insurance benefits decline as volatility becomes less important with climate change.
Integrated package delivers similar benefits at lower costs.
For harnessing the benefits of integrated packages, a cross-sectoral cooperation between different public and private sectors is essential.
Khan, F., Mustafa, D., Kull, D., and The Risk to Resilience Study Team, (2008): "Evaluating the Costs and Benefits of Disaster Risk Reduction under Changing Climatic Conditions: A Pakistan Case Study, From Risk to Resilience" Working Paper No. 7, eds. Moench, M., Caspari, E. & A. Pokhrel, ISET, ISET-Nepal and ProVention, Kathmandu, Nepal, 24 pp
This working paper analyzes the costs and benefits of both structural flood control measures, and a wide array of local, "people-centered" strategies. These strategies range from the planting of forest buffers to the raising of houses and villages. It also includes the development of early warning systems and the expansion of existing local strategies for coping with floods. The analysis indicates that the cost of structural approach exceeds its benefits. Reliance on such measures should be reduced, and instead a combination of people centered and appropriately designed and maintained structures adopted. The study suggests that the core of people-centered strategies are careful design, accompanied by measures to improve drainage, address location specific effects and structural approaches that can be form part of a package of complementary interventions.
Jon, B. & Adger, N. (June 2005), "Security and Climate Change: Towards an Improved Understanding", Human Security and Climate Change Workshop, Oslo.
As a macro-driver of many kinds of environmental changes such as coastal erosion, declining precipitation and soil moisture, increased storm intensity and species migration, climate change poses risks to human security (McCarthy et al., 2001). The paper suggests that individuals who are more dependent on the eco-system are more vulnerable to climate change, than those dependent on resources which are not sensitive to climate change. The paper further states that climate change will increase risk to already socially vulnerable communities that belong to already environmentally and socially marginalised areas.
Cutter, S. L., Bryan, J. B. and Lynn, W. S. (2003), "Social vulnerability to environmental hazards", Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 84, No. 2, pp-242-261
Cutter et al. (2003) use the hazard of place model of vulnerability to show the relationship between the characteristics that enable a community and individual to respond to and recover from environmental hazards. The paper outlines different characteristics that determine the social vulnerability of the populace exposed to a natural disaster. These characteristics include socio-economic status of the individual, gender, race, ethnicity, age, commercial and industrial development of the region. It is questionable whether the region is rural or urban by looking at the value of residential property along with value of construction. Some other variables such as infrastructure, occupation, education, family structure, population growth, medical services, facilities available, social dependence and population with special needs are also analysed in the model.
Anderson, M. B. (1990), "Analyzing the costs and benefits of natural disaster responses in the context development", Environment Working Paper No.29, The World Bank, Environment Department.
The paper explores the benefits to a developing country while investing in disaster risk management and recovery programme. The paper identifies that losses to natural disasters as a percentage of national wealth in developing country are higher than the developed nations. Disasters entrap the already poor populace in the poverty cycle. The paper also states that as developing countries already are in need for investment to develop infrastructure such events have a negative impact on foreign direct investment. It will make further development a difficult task.
Anderson, M.B. (2000), "Vulnerability to Disaster and Sustainable Development: A General Framework for Assessing Vulnerability", in Pielke, R. Jr. and Pielke, R. Sr. (Ed.), Strom (Vol. 1), Routledge, London. pp. 11-25.
In chapter 3 of the book, the author states that it is important to understand and be able to measure different levels of vulnerability. In poor countries, the researchers are to focus on factors which push the vulnerable populace into so much poverty that they have to rely on outside assistance for survival. The chapter cites the definition of disaster as "a crisis event that surpasses the ability of an individual, community, or society to control or survive its consequences" (Kreimer and Munasinghe, 1990). The author further explains that it is not the proximity of the populace to the natural disaster but their socio-economic status that makes them more vulnerable to a natural disaster. However, their poverty is not the sole basis for measuring vulnerability. Other factors such as awareness in the populace, use of marginal lands, population growth and economic development of the region are critical for vulnerability assessment.
Nick, B., Adger, W. N., and Kelly, P. M. (2005), "The determinants of vulnerability and adaptive capacity at the national level and the implications for adaptation", Global Environmental Change, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 151-163
The analysis was based on a conceptual framework that views risk as the outcome and a function of physically defined climate hazards and socially constructed vulnerability. Outcomes of climate change are represented by the mortality from the climate change related disasters, for which emergency events database set has been used, by creating a statistical relationship between mortality and some key vulnerability indicators. Both quantitative and qualitative analysis was conducted to validate the relationship between vulnerability and adaptive capacity through data collected from focused groups.
Kelman, I., Jonkmann, S.N., (2005), "An analysis of the causes and circumstances of flood disaster deaths", Disasters, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 75-97
The paper investigates the causes and circumstances in which floods caused deaths and negative health effects. The research developed a methodology to classify deaths and presented difficulties associated with comparing and assessing existing information on floods. The focus of study was:
to compare different events and to examine simultaneously flood disaster deaths in many flood disasters;
to develop a proposal for standardized data collection that factors in key vulnerabilities leading to flood disaster deaths; and
to establish a relatively solid basis for mitigation and education.
Dwyer, A., Zoppou, C., Nielsen, O., Day, S., and Roberts, S. (2004), "Quantifying Social Vulnerability: A methodology for identifying those at risk to natural hazards", Geoscience Australia.
The study focuses on developing a methodology on measuring social vulnerability. The study uses a unique method of measuring the vulnerability of individuals within a household in order to contribute to the development of comprehensive natural hazard risk assessments. The methodology introduces a technique for measuring certain attributes of individuals living within a household that contribute to their vulnerability to a natural hazard impact.
As the study focuses specifically on measuring vulnerability, the indicators selected have been restricted to quantifiable indicators. Thirteen vulnerability indicators and two hazard indicators were selected for the study. The indicators of vulnerability includes age, income, gender, employment, residence type, household type, tenure type, health insurance, house insurance, car ownership, disability, English language skills and debt/savings. Two hazard indicators included in the analysis were residence damage and injuries.
Babugura, A., Nompumelelo, C. M. and Mthokozisi, M. (2010), "Gender and Climate Change: South Africa Case Study", Heinrich Böll Foundation Southern Africa, Cape Town.
This study aims to examine the interrelations between climate change and gender to make a contribution to the existing information gap on the gender differentiated impacts of climate change. Another objective of the study was to create awareness amongst policy and decision-makers about the need for gender differentiated adaptation policies. The methodology of the case study was based on qualitative research techniques guided by a combination of gender analysis tools. The research techniques were participatory rural appraisal in the form of focus group discussions, role play, ethnography (life history) and key informant interviews. Primary data was collected to understand the differences in gender roles, activities, needs, and opportunities in the context of climate change.
World Metrological Department, (2007), "Economic Aspects of Integrated Flood Management", Geneva, Switzerland
Environmental degradation has the potential to threaten human security, including life and livelihoods, and food and health security. This realisation has recently led to calls for a paradigm shift from flood control to flood management. Integrated Flood Management (IFM) is a concept that addresses issues of human security against flood risks and sustainable development within the framework of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). This integrated approach of flood management can play an important role in sustainable development and poverty reduction. IFM aims at minimizing loss of life from flooding while maximizing the net benefits derived from flood plains. Cost-benefit analysis can pave the way for decision-making for selecting optimal measures during the planning and implementation process. In this study, different approaches to expand and refine CBA were used by putting monetary values on social and environmental concerns. The study also develops complementary analytical tools such as multi-criteria analysis (MCA) from the subjective factors by arriving at figures which best reflect social valuations. One obvious way in which this problem can be handled is to involve the affected people in various stages of analysis. Since evaluation involves social values, it would be quite appropriate to carry out CBA/MCA in close consultation with and participation of the public affected by a particular project. This requires effective stakeholder participation with appropriate enabling mechanisms. In order to minimise subjectivity in decision-making, environmentally sensitive economic analysis plays a key role in trade-offs and conflict situations. Multi-criteria analysis is useful in ranking options, short listing a limited number of options for subsequent detailed appraisal, e.g. CBA. Multi-criteria analysis can be used for stakeholders to explore the nature of the choices, determine the critical factors, discover their own preferences and simplify the process of selecting critical options. Since economic evaluation involves societal values, it is appropriate to carry out environmentally sensitive economic analysis in close consultation and participation with the public affected by the projects.
Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), (2008), "A Study on Impacts of Disasters on the Education Sector in Cambodia", Bangkok, Thailand
The study combines both socio-economic and physical assessments of disaster impacts. The study was based on field survey of the selected vulnerable schools that were randomly selected. School principals were interviewed, in order to assess the impacts of disasters on the education sector at the national level. Secondary data related to disaster on education sector of other provinces were also collected. In addition to field survey and secondary data collection, three interventions were made to analyse the impact of disaster from socio-economic and physical assessment. The interventions included an educational programme for children, educational training programme for parents and basic home activities. Key findings of the study revealed that the flood caused high dropout rate, difficulty in accessing schools, disruptions to the completion of the study programmes and uses of schools as emergency shelters.
Sarah, B. (2004), "Socio-economic Impacts of Natural Disasters: A Gender Analysis", Women and Development Wing, UN, Santiago, Chile
This paper analyses the socio-economic effects of hurricane Mitch using a gender approach by proposing new analysis indicators for crisis situations that may better reflect women's disadvantageous position relative to men. It also examines the direct and indirect impacts of natural disaster such as hurricane Mitch with gender differential impact particularly women. It has also documented the responses to hurricane Mitch at three levels. Firstly, at individual level that includes mitigation strategies for coping with the crisis. Secondly, actions of governments and the coordinated bodies of civil society for disaster preparedness, rescue and recovery. Finally, the reconstruction initiatives carried out by national and international organizations to minimise damage. The study was based on qualitative research technique by using tools of key informant interviews, interviews with representatives of women and feminist movements and individual best practices.
Amrah, F. A., Yawson, D. O., Yengoh, G. T., Odoi, J. O. and Afrifa, E. K.A. (2010), "Impact of Floods on Livelihoods and Vulnerability of Natural Resource Dependent Communities in Northern Ghana", Water, Vol. 2, pp. 120-139.
This article assesses the coping strategies and vulnerability of two agriculture-dependent communities in the aftermath of the floods. Vulnerability will be considered as key factor in this study because it takes into account complex ecological, socio-cultural, and economic-political dimensions of context specific social phenomena such as livelihoods.
By developing qualitative modeling, the article explores the impact of floods on natural resource dependent communities in Northern Ghana. Simplified causal loop diagrams are used to conceptualize flood-induced coping strategies in the study area. The results indicate that some characteristics of the socio-cultural environment appear to mitigate risk and reduce vulnerability. In this context, the role of social networks in enhancing livelihood security is essential. The paper concludes that both in case of seasonal variations in agricultural output and floods, individuals that have effectively diversified their livelihoods, both occupationally and geographically, are less sensitive than individuals who mainly achieve entitlement to food via crop cultivation. However, diversification in this case is effective only in the short term.
Steinführer, A. and Kuhlicke, C. (2007), "Social Vulnerability and the 2002 Flood: Country Report Germany (Mulde River)", FLOODsite report T11-07-08
Focusing on social vulnerability, the report applies both event and phase-sensitive approach with regard to the 2002 flood from a bottom-up perspective of the people affected. In the first step, social vulnerability is understood as a specific form of social inequality in the context of a so-called disaster. In the second step of approaching social vulnerability, the study applied, refined and operationalized the definition by Blaikie et al. (1994) that viewed vulnerability as "the characteristics of a person or group in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist, and recover from the impact of a natural hazard". The strength of this approach is to be found in its consideration of both the social and temporal dimensions of a disaster. Instead of emphasising characteristics of the natural or technological hazard itself or the exposure (structures, buildings etc.) to the hazard, it focuses on the question of how communities and social groups are able to deal with the impacts of a natural hazard. Hence, it is not so much the susceptibility of entire communities or certain groups to a specific hazard that is of interest, but their coping capacity in the different and at the same time overlapping phases of an event (anticipation, resistance and coping, recovery and reconstruction). However, while applying this logic of structuring the questionnaire data, the study also includes "nonsocial" aspects of vulnerability.
