The issue of genetically modified (GM) crops is an emotive topic with the public. In the UK, the public appears to have adopted a precautionary / sceptical approach (Gaskell, 2004). Public opposition to agricultural biotechnology has resulted in a decline in the number of GM crop field trials being carried out in England and has forced some companies, such as Syngenta, to relocate its agri-biotech research and development away from the UK to the USA (Davies, 2004). However, this new technology, if properly regulated, could address issues relating to increased population growth and sustainable development.
An exploration of scientific evidence surrounding the potential impact of GM crops on the UK environment was carried out during a discussion meeting at the Royal Society in February 2003 (royalsoc.ac.uk, 2005). During the discussion the detrimental impact of modern agricultural practices on the environment set the scene for the debate that followed. Current agricultural practices are not sustainable. Plant, invertebrate and bird numbers have all declined during the last century as a result of land management practices, whilst excess levels of fertilizer inputs have led to deteriorating water quality problems (of which, groundwater contamination and eutrophication are perhaps the most significant environmentagency.gov.uk, 2005). The cause has been the increasing intensification and specialisation of farming, with a shift from mixed farming to arable farming in the east and grassland in the west. Biodiversity has also been impacted by the planting of autumn cereals and planting of silage. Traditionally, the incentives for farmers to farm in a more sustainable manner, with a view towards biodiversity conservation, have been absent. The question relating to GM crops / agricultural biotechnology is therefore whether or not they will improve or worsen the situation.
A recurring theme in the debate surrounding GM has been gene flow. Pollination involves the flow of genes though the greatest amount of gene flow will occur during transportation. Consequently, the Convention on Biosafety specifically addresses this risk. The objective of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is to help ensure protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling, and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, including risks to human health and specifically focusing on transboundary movements (taken from the Catagena Protocol on Biosafety).
Imports of GMOs into the UK (and EC) are covered by existing Community legislation – Council Directive 2001/18/EC on the deliberate release into the environment of GMOs. The Protocol is therefore most beneficial to developing countries without existing legislation on GMOs and who require information before deciding on the conservational and sustainable impact of accepting GMO imports. In the UK, further EC regulations were adopted arising from the need to address exported obligations. Such issues have led to the implementation of EC Regulation No. 1946/2003 on the transboundary movement of GMOs.
Invasive GM crops are often cited as a fear. There is some basis to this fear, though the evidence suggests that whilst some plants do escape they do not create invasive sub-populations. Evidence from the Canadian experience suggests risks should be based on a case specific basis, since differing scale, environmental and agronomic conditions need to be assessed in terms of other environmental consequences (royalsoc.ac.uk, 2005).
Argentina provides another example (Branford, 2004). The uptake of Monsanto’s round-up ready soya was phenomenal during the mid to late 90s. Some 13 million hectares were converted to GM. Traditionally, farm workers were employed for weeding and other such roles, however, the introduction of herbicide resistant crops reduced the need for such workers. Additionally, the dominance of larger farmers has resulted in many smaller farmers leaving their lands. There have also been concerns surrounding the impact of increasing herbicide usage on human health.
Assessment of new technology is a balance between evaluating the potential risks with the benefits. Potential risks can be assessed in tiered risk assessments e.g. laboratory, semi-field and field studies. Such a methodology provides an indication of hazards and some quantification of risk. Karl Popper’s assertion that Man is not a rational being succinctly describes to problems with GM biosafety risk assessment. How individual farmers adopt and use new technology is difficult to predict.
GM crops can potentially aide the doubling of agricultural production and minimise inputs. Monsanto has recently made inroads into producing GM crops with a distinct commercial objective. Producing crops which potentially have health benefits, e.g. nutraceuticals (e.g. foods or part of a food which provide medicinal or health benefits i.e. altered oil contents / reduced saturated fat) and are not just aimed at benefiting the farmers may tackle negative consumer response (Coghlan, 2005).
The fact that the majority of seeds farmers plant are developed through commercial companies has raised concern about Intellectual Property rights. Developing countries have a limited budget for biosafety and socio-economic considerations, related to the assessment of risk, are important. This precautionary approach is perfectly acceptable but there is huge pressure applied by biotechnology companies adopting the scientific approach which asserts that there is no concrete scientific data to date which suggests that GM crops are more dangerous than conventional crops. This is the view of the Royal Society (2003) and is supported by The British Medical Association (BMA) (March, 2004). The Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) is, however, problematic for developing countries. Trade favours industrialised countries and patenting issues are potentially a serious source for contention (Hertz, 2004).
Critically, GM agriculture is generally assessed in terms of the country they are developed. There is a greater need and urgency to assess the particular requirements and characteristics of developing countries (Hertz, 2004). If new technologies are to be adopted and further, to succeed, there have to be new relationships forged that combine advances from new technology to solve the problems in developing countries. The world population is estimated to rise to 9-10 billion by 2050 and there is increasing pressure on land to build new homes. Coupled with this are increasing concerns over climate change and access to adequate water supplies (both quantity and quality). This means that global food security is heavily dependant upon technological advances in order to avoid Malthusians scenario of poverty and famine due to overpopulation.
