Nepal was opened to foreign visitors in 1950 after two centuries of isolation. Annual tourist visit was as low as 10,000 until 1965 but dramatically increased in the following decades [1] . The majestic mountain ranges have always been the center of attraction for many visitors, attracting increasing number of tourists each year particularly for trekking and mountaineering activities.
The Mount Everest region, locally known as Khumbu, is the gateway to many majestic mountains including Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world. Khumbu is located in the high altitudes of the Northeastern part of Nepal. It is set in the valley of Imja Khola enclosed by majestic peaks rising above 8000-metres such as Mount Everest, Lhotse and Chooyu. Khumbu is located at the headwaters of Dudh Koshi near the Tibetan border and there are eight Sherpa inhabited villages in the area. Khumbu is home to Sherpas whose primary occupations were high-altitude animal herding and subsistence agriculture. Sherpas were also involved in annual trans-Himalayan trade where they conducted barter exchange of Tibetan salt and wool for rice, maize, millet and wheat with Sherpas and Rais of lower Dudh Koshi area.
Sherpas are Mongoloid Buddhist, and share closer cultural ties with Tibet than Nepal. Increasing tourism activities have transformed the lifestyle of Sherpas in numerous ways. Until 1964, only mountaineering expeditions were allowed to visit Khumbu but after the region was opened the number of visitors multiplied to 8000 and increased even more in the following decades. Most of the trekkers are from United States, Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan. The most popular time of year to visit this area is in October and November when the weather remains clear.
The entries of tourists have had significant effect on the local communities, especially the Sherpas (a Nepalese ethnic group) who have been living around the trekking routes of Khumbu region of Solukhumbu district. The culture of Sherpa has been changed as well as the structure of the local economies.
After introduction trekking tourism and the trekker has come to Nepal, the Sherpa paid little attention to them. Now that the number have increased and the Sherpas' services are in demand (Sherpas have historically acted as guides, leader, cooks, porters etc), trekking has encouraged a "get rich-quick" mentality. As result, the agricultural production has been decreased, since it generates less income and a decrease in school presence, children dream of becoming guides and drop out of school the moment they get the chance to join an expedition. The Sherpa see money now when they see tourists. Local people are also becoming more dependent on cash rather than the traditional means of barter and reciprocal labour. Villages are changing from being independent into being dependent on tourism dollars and outside resources to meet their normal needs. More and more agriculture fields are left fallow as more men are leaving to seek wealth from tourism. It means they must import food items from outside by paying more money. The higher price is a hardship on those families who do not have income from tourism. Many of the old traditions are disappearing such as the custom of drinking Tibetan tea.
The Sherpas have not saved or invested any of their income generated from tourism. Rather, they have spent it on western items, further degrading their traditional culture. Trekking Sherpas, as they have come to be known as have discarded their traditional dress for imported hiking boots, colorful wool sweaters, and down parkas.
The division of the village into trekking Sherpa and non-trekking Sherpa has resulted in the creation of new types of class. Whereas there were always class divisions in the past, all of the people dressed and lived in a relatively similar manner. Today donning the Western wear, the trekking Sherpa and his wealth is easy to distinguish from a farmer.
Another effect of tourism is that local crafts are dying out. These crafts cannot generate the same amount of income as tourism has the supplies needed are harder to obtain. The Sherpa now have access to cash, hence they are now able to purchase manufactured items rather than make their own. Wool is one item, which has become scarce; hence, layers of cotton must be bought and worn to keep warm.
Trekking is one of the highest paying employments in Nepal today. The wealth available from this job draws many youngsters out of school and into tourism. Teaching and government jobs, once considered very prestigious, are no longer desirable since they do not provide the same income as trekking. It is ironic that many youngsters are leaving school early since one of the qualifications need today in trekking is just the knowledge of spoken and written Nepali and English. The youngsters may be even more valuable if they would continue their education rather than leave after a few years. It is also ironic that the Sherpa do not enjoy the trekking. To them, "climbing is simply a high-paying job."
The trekking Sherpa are also forced to reflect the image projected upon them by the western visitors. The Sherpa wear masks, having a public side for the world to see and a private side, which is true to themselves. It is hard for the Sherpa, who work twenty-four hours a day, to maintain the public mask. Some Sherpa see themselves partly as actors and entertainers. It is only when the trek has ended that the many unveil themselves and engage in drinking binges and general hell raising that may go on for days.
Finally, there is the disruption to the family life. The men are often away from the home for months in a year. Many of the trekking Sherpa, who are married, keep another woman in the cities where they stay in between treks. Other Sherpa are enticed by the forward gestures of Western women, who often initiate the affair. "A number of Sherpa women have lost their husband or friend to foreign women."
Perhaps a far greater concern is the loss of life. The decreasing number of young men has meant that many women are burdened with raising the children and with the responsibility of the farm-work. The young unmarried women are also disadvantaged since there are fewer young men. One must being to wonder if it is justifiable to endanger the lives of the Sherpas so that others enjoy themselves.
9.1.1. Transformation of Economy
The traditional economy and social organization of Sherpa of Khumbu region before tourism
Over the last 40 years, Sherpa society has become increasingly depend on tourism and mountaineering as a source of income. Before this time, the Sherpa economy was based on subsistence agriculture, trade and livestock. Before 1970s, livestock husbandry was absolutely essential to the well-being of the Sherpas. The Khumbu's harsh climate only allows one crop a year of barley, potatoes and buckwheat. As a result, the Sherpas who lived before 1970s depended primarily on their animals and trade for income. Livestock produces income in a variety of ways. The butter and cheese they produce can be sold at a good price and the Tseepa (belly hair of Yak) is used to weave blankets. When the Sherpas still had active trade, animals were essential for carrying loads over the high passes between Tibet and Nepal. Throughout the 1960's and 1970's the number of tourists and mountaineers visiting the Khumbu gradually increased, until by 1983 there were almost 5000 coming every years. After 1970's a few number of Sherpas involved in tourism, and slowly number has been increased, but nowadays majority of them have been involved in tourism.
Greater employment opportunities and increasing affluence
The government of Nepal emphasizes development and growth of tourism in order to secure foreign exchange and to stimulate economic growth. Increasing tourism activities has led to increasing prosperity of Sherpas and elevation in their living standards. While the annual per capita income for the nation was $229 (2003, WDI), annual per capita income for most of the people in Khumbu area was $1400 [2] . Sherpas, who were involved in higher altitude work, earn average of $7000 [3] annually, which is substantially above the national average. Mountaineering in Khumbu region is a source of substantial foreign exchange for the government of Nepal. A royalty of $50,000 is charged for a team of seven people and additional $20,000 is charged if the team wishes to scale Mount Everest from East Ridge route. [4] The ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation also requires the expedition team to keep monetary deposit subject to refund after the dispatch of garbage from Nepal.
Most of the Sherpa households have adopted income-generating activities based on tourism. Sherpas are employed in trekking and mountaineering activities as group leaders (sirdars), porters and cooks as a part of trekking groups or mountaineering expeditions. While due to their growing positive reputation, Sherpa men are most likely to find trekking or mountaineering job easily, participation of women have been relatively small though some women are employed as kitchen or camp crews or as pack-stock drivers. As Sherpas of Khumbu continue to discover better opportunities brought about by tourism, they have started considering a job of porter inferior due to low pay. Therefore, in recent years, most of the porters in Khumbu are from outside the area; they are mainly the Sherpas, Rais and Tamangs [5] from lower areas, figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12, Origin of porters working in Khumbu (Mt. Everest conservation area)
Source; Great Himalayas, Tourism and dynamics of changes in Nepal
Since the late 1960s, tourism based businesses and entrepreneurship has mushroomed in the region. Numerous lodges have been built to cater to the trekkers and mountaineers. Stores selling food, souvenirs and selling or renting trekking or mountaineering paraphernalia are also quite popular. At the beginning, Sherpas merely modified their own houses or herding huts as lodges, nowadays there are specially built lodges with modern facilities. However, the cost of building a lodge is increasing because of the high cost of land and rising cost of materials especially wood. Running a lodge in Khumbu is a highly lucrative business as a popular lodge can earn as much as $10,000 a year, and most lodges earn at least $2000 annually. That provides enough funds to purchase supplies at the local weekly market or Kathmandu and to hire wage labor. A committee of local lodge owners has been formed to monitor prices of Khumbu lodges to avoid any price wars.
Though employment as a part of expedition is seasonal, most of the Sherpas are employed throughout the year by the mountaineering and trekking agencies based in Kathmandu. In addition, the income earned during the tourism season is sufficient for the rest of the year for them as food; lodging and other expenses are paid by the expedition enabling them to bring the entire paycheck home.
9.1.2. Increasing Income Inequality
Income inequality has been increasing due to tourism-based activities as not all household could establish the lucrative entrepreneurship or get lucrative jobs. Household in villages which are not optimal for tourism have significantly low income compared to households that are involved in high paying trekking or mountaineering employment or other tourism based business or that own large herds of cattle and Yaks. Nauje, one of the villages in Khumbu located at the entrance of Khumbu area has 70 percent of the total shops in Khumbu and almost all the lodges are located here. Hence, households in Nauje have benefitted highly due to its prime location. Other villages in Khumbu that have benefitted due to their location are Kunde and Khumjung. While some villages like Phurtse, Yulajung and Thami Teng have no prospect for tourism as some of them are near the pass leading into Tibet where tourist are prohibited from visiting. Though income inequality persists, there has been no social tension in the area. Instead, the Sherpas who are not able to benefit from the tourism activities continue to look for trekking and mountaineering careers and seek low wage employment in the areas where tourism activities exist.
While a number of Sherpas are engaged in lucrative employment opportunities, Sherpas, Tamangs and Rais from the lower altitude areas and villages with poor business prospect resort to low-wage employments in the lodges, hotels and other operations. They are often involved in low-paying jobs like hauling water, collecting firewood, cooking and cleaning.
9.1.3. Other Economic Changes: Multiplier effect, higher monetization of economy and inflation
Multiplier effect of money earned through tourism-based activities is evident in the area as the money earned through tourism based activities has been primarily been used to buy local agricultural products from low altitude areas and after 1980s in hiring local construction workers and agricultural day laborers. However, significant amount of the money leaves local hands as it is spent on products and supplies from low altitude areas and Kathmandu. Money is also spent on pilgrimages to Kathmandu, India and Tibet and on sending children to Kathmandu. The wage paid to laborers from low altitude region also leaves the local hands.
The local economy has been highly monetized. Rise in tourism activities has elevated importance and use of cash replacing traditional barter trade of goods as well as services. It has also lead to inflation of some of the primary commodities as lodges and mountaineering groups buy larger quantities of supplies pushing up the demand as well as price of goods. Inflation in food and fuel prices has especially put pressure on the low-income groups that are not involved in tourism activities. Households that are involved in tourism activities can use their high tourism generated income to overcome inflation.
9.1.4. Effects on Culture and Lifestyle
"Anthropologist believe that the Sherpas have undergone widespread economic change with better social integrity then nearly any other tribal group known to the modern world" (Garratt, 1981).
9.1.4.1. Resilience to cultural change despite intrusion
Sherpas continue to be proud of their traditions and continue to observe Buddhism. New wealth has been used for restoration of temples, building of new shrines, and expansion of monasteries, which have all worked in strengthening their cultural ties. The number of monks in the local monasteries has also increased due to increase in their demand from families wanting to conduct religious rituals and ceremonies. Local monks have also been involved in creating art works, which are of interest to tourists.
However, there have been some instances when tourism is seen to hamper the traditional culture. Inability of tourist to maintain respect in the shrines and photographing without consideration has often angered local people. Mani Rimdu festival is observed each autumn in Tengboche monastery, which is one of the prominent monasteries of Khumbu [6] . Increasing number of tourist participation in this festival has resulted in tourist outnumbering the local people. However, the ceremonies remain the same some of the locals hesitate to participate because of the increasing number of tourists. However, rest of the religious festivals fall in other seasons when tourists are not present in the area. Tourism has also given rise to commercialization of art and local heritage.
9.1.4.2. Positive influences
Tourism has influenced Sherpas to send their children to school and to learn English. Sherpas have been able to send their children to good school through their tourism earnings or philanthropic donations from foreign visitors. Locals have greater access to health facilities due to establishment of infrastructure for health by government as well as philanthropic donation from foreign visitors. For instance, Sir Edmund Hilary has established a hospital called 'Himalayan Trust Hospital' in Kunde [7] , which has played instrumental role in bringing down the morbidity rates including infant and child mortality rates in the Khumbu region.
9.1.4.3. Change in political dynamics
Men who worked as expedition leaders, lodge keepers have evolved as political figures in the area. People employed in tourism or operating tourism business often cover official positions in villages and temples. Status of wealthy Sherpa traders have been replaced by Sherpas involved in tourism. Communities in Khumbu have felt that emigration of leaders affect the political activities to some extent. (Norbu Sherpa, 1982)
9.1.4.4. Change in Demography
Absence of men during the expedition season and out migration of men to cities or abroad for better opportunities has led to greater responsibility for women in agriculture and business. It has also affected social life and has decreased the birth rates. There has been emigration to work in trekking agencies in Kathmandu or migration to foreign countries for even better opportunities. However, tourism has played an important role in slowing emigration as Sherpas opt to work in trekking or mountaineering or operate tourism businesses, which are sources of substantial income. This has stopped the trend of migrating to lowlands or Kathmandu and other cities, which might have been obvious if there were no opportunities available in Khumbu.
Absence of Sherpa men during the trekking season and increased household and agricultural responsibility for Sherpa women has resulted in low birth rate. Birth rate in Khumbu is easily outnumbered by death and out migration leading to continuing decline in population. This might have also been triggered by decreasing economic value of children as Sherpas continue to enjoy affluence brought by tourism.
9.2. Conclusion
Khumbu region has gone under tremendous transformation after tourism started flourishing in the region due to mountaineering and trekking activities. Economic, social, ecological, cultural and political systems have been modernized due to exposure to greater regional, national and international systems causing transfer of influence to Khumbu region from its 'modern' counterparts. The Sherpas of Khumbu region have been able to gain substantial economic wealth through tourism without grave cultural erosion
Traditionally subsistence economy of Khumbu has become highly economically dependent on external region and industrialized nations in order to sustain the tourism activities. Both demand and supply of the industry that Sherpas depend upon are externally determined, as their customers are mainly international tourist and supplies required for industry is also increasingly procured from outside the Khumbu region.
Modernization seems to have hit the right targets as it has not contaminated the culture due to resilient nature of Sherpas but has brought number of positive changes like exposure to educational and health facilities and better lifestyle with continuing affirmation to Buddhist faith. Economic dependency does not pose any immediate danger either. It does illustrate incidence of successful tourism-led economic development but the region continues to face some challenges like widening income inequality and continuing environmental stress. It also faces permanent challenges due to the topographical situation of the region as physical infrastructure development continues to be challenging task. There is no doubt that tourism has played instrumental role in economic growth and development of Khumbu region and without which there would have been limited potential for economic growth due to the topographical situation of Khumbu area.
