Critically discuss how managers can apply reinforcement theory to shape and reshape employee behaviours to overcome the restraining forces of change.
Discuss your answer in detail with the use of relevant organizational behaviour and organizational development theories, techniques and strategies.
INTRODUCTION
Reinforcement theory is a very essential learning in any organisation and is often very challenging for managers to apply. This paper aims to explain the process of reinforcement, its perception, its application in organisation and its consequences.
Overcoming restraining forces of change, it barriers and leading subordinates to accept this change is the major focus of the manager and so this is the primary goal of this paper.
The whole purpose which revolves around this paper is to possess better knowledge of behavioural theories like operant conditioning, how it influences people in an organisation and how well manager can use it in shaping individuals.
Various Organisational behavioural models are included to support theories with many practical examples and stories of organisations related to such issues.
Shaping is termed as "modifying behaviour" and is a powerful technique used in an organization. Thus managers often use reinforcement theory to shape, analyze and control mechanism for individual's behaviour.
What is Reinforcement?
Reinforcement is a term used by skinner in operant conditioning. It forms an association between behaviour and consequences. It can be used to motivate and encourage people in a firm through the use of reinforcers. Reinforcer is a stimulus that increases the probable desired response in operant conditioning.
Skinner and instrumental conditioning
B.F Skinner developed the theory of instrumental conditioning. He put forward difference between two types of behaviour, Respondent and Operant. Respondent behaviour is under the direct control of stimulus where as Operant is under no-direct or obvious cause. Operant conditioning is also known as "instrumental conditioning". Behaviour Modification is the term often used to describe operant conditioning principle when applied to an individual. Thus, behaviour modification is individual learning by reinforcement.
Principles of Operant Conditioning:
The managers use the following principles of operant conditioning for controlling the behaviour of the employee-:
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement refers to giving positive response to individual when they show positive or required behaviour. for example, reward can be positive reinforcer used to improve employee performance but not always. Higher the giving of reward more will be reinforcement value. In other words, desired behaviour doesn't occur when reinforcers are not made possible.
Many organizations are referring positive reinforcement to incorporate values. For e.g., Conoco made environmental criteria a component of their incentive system. Positive reinforcers can be non financial rewards also, besides monitory ones.
Principles of positive reinforcement:
There are several factors which influence positive reinforcement:
Principle of Contingent reinforcement: It states, if the desired behaviour is performed, reinforcer must be provided.
Principle of immediate reinforcement: It states, if the reinforcer is provided immediately after the desired behaviour has occurred, it will be most effective.
Principle of reinforcement size: It states, larger the size of reinforcer delivered, more effective will be the reinforcer.
Principle of reinforcement deprivation: It states, there will be a greater effect on future occurrence of behaviour if a person is more deprived for reinforcer.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is effective because it removes unpleasant stimulus or negative reinforcer and helps employee to avoid it. It can be used to increase desirable behaviour of an employee.
Negative reinforcement can occur in two ways:
1. Escape- when employee tries to terminate unpleasant events.
2. Avoidance- when unpleasant activity is prevented by behaviour .
Some of the examples of negative reinforcement can be, putting high efforts in a job, may be negatively reinforced by not listening to nagging boss. In this increased effort will be your behaviour and minimizing the chance of listening to your boss will act as negative reinforcer.
Punishment
It is an unwanted consequence for a particular behavioural response. This strategy is highly used by all managers. While it can suppress the behaviour, it is used as an Organizational behaviour modification method.
Organizations may use different types of unpleasant events to punish individuals. E.g., cut in pay, disciplinary suspension without pay, or demotion or the firing of an employee can be the final punishment.
Negative effects of Punishments:
Punishment can effect an individual emotionally and may lead to behaviour detrimental, may lead to short term suppression, may lead to absenteeism, may suppress employee's flexibility, may produce fear of management, etc.
Effective use of Punishments:
Positive reinforcement has more advantages than punishment and thus more effective. Oral reprimand is the most common form of punishment in an organization. Praise in public, punish in private. Private reprimand can be constructive as compared to public reprimand which can have negative effects. Managers should balance between pleasant and unpleasant events.
Extinction:
It is a removal of all reinforcing events. It decreases the frequency of desired behaviour and eventually undesirable behaviour extinct. Managers use it to reduce unpleasant events of the employee. It consists of three steps:
Identification of the Behaviour which is to be eliminated.
Identification of the reinforcer that maintains behaviour.
Stopping the reinforcer.
Rules for applying Operant Conditioning Principle:
Hamner and Hamner have outline number of rules for applying principle of operant conditioning. If a manager follows these rules in dealing with subordinates, their performance should be enhanced:-
Use differential rewarding: When managers treat all employees alike, most above average performers minimize their level of performance. When rewards are measurable by a common standard, superior feels that their efforts are valued and thus encourage them to try harder
Identify valued rewards for individuals: Rewards must have value to the employee; therefore managers should ask employees what rewards they would like to receive (vacation, involvement in decision making, medical insurance, etc.)
Instruct Employers on how rewards are tied to performance: Connection of rewards and performance should be very clear to employees in order for operant conditioning to maximize. Thus, goals for performance should be clearly stated by the managers and also the rewards related to it.
Provide informative feedback on performance: Instructive feedbacks should be given to employers for better standard of performance. Managers should give suggestion, guidance, and feedback as a form of reinforcement.
Schedules of Reinforcement:
Proper timing of rewards or punishments is essential and thus it is important to determine application of reinforcers. For this reinforcement scheduling is done.
There are two types of reinforcement schedules:
Continuous reinforcements: In this behaviour is reinforced each time it occurs. It is easiest schedule of reinforcement and helps in early performance.
Intermittent reinforcement: In this reinforcer is delivered after some response and not after each response. It is more effective. Intermittent reinforcement can be sub divided into:
Interval schedule: In this response is reinforced after a specified time interval. It can be either fixed or variable.
Fixed interval Schedule: Before a reinforcer is provided, a constant amount of time must pass. E.g., employee receiving a bi-monthly pays check, or reward on fixed time basis.
Variable interval Schedule: It is a change in amount of time between reinforcer. E.g., unannounced inspections, rewards given randomly each month.
Ratio Schedule: It means, reinforcers are delivered after a certain number of responses.
Fixed ratio schedule: Here, before the reinforcement of the desired behaviour, it should occur specified number of times. It produce high response rate when reinforcement is close. E.g., per piece rate system or reward tied to specific number of response.
Variable ratio schedule: Before the manager delivers a reinforcer, variable ratio schedule also requires certain number of responses. Managers generally use variable ratio schedule in the form of praise and encouragement. E.g., team leaders at Sprint vary frequency of reinforcement when they give employee verbal approval for desired behaviour.
Behaviour modification: A managerial perspective
Behaviour modification is based on assumptions that behaviour is more important than "psychological causes". Hence B.F Skinner focuses mainly on behaviours. Reinforcement theory tells that a desired behaviour can be increased by positive events, while undesirable behaviours can be decreased by negative outcomes. This approach is based on performance and thus emphasizes on specific behaviour of workplace. This helps employees to change in definite time frame as it provides clear vision and results and so encouraging them toward it.
Behaviour modification in an organisation faces several problem solving stages-:
Identification of specific behaviours-
Managers must identify specific performance related behaviour by pinpointing or by recording.
Measurement of specific behaviour-
Managers must count the number of times a behaviour is been pinpointed. They can graph these data to see the increasing or decreasing behaviour.
ABC analysis-
Managers should functionally analyse the behaviours through ABC analysis (antecedents, behaviour and consequences).This helps to identify the problems.
Antecedents- It helps employees to know what's expected from them, how much they have communicated.
Behaviours- It shows whether the behaviour will be performed or not, what will prevent its occurrence, etc.
Consequences- It helps to tell that whether reinforcement is specific, are improvements being reinforced.
Application of the strategy-
The strategies used to fulfil goals of strengthening desired behaviour and weakening undesired behaviour can be:
Positive reinforcements,
Negative reinforcements,
Punishments or
Extinction
Mostly managers prefer to use positive form of reinforcement in an organisational modification.
Measure
Measure the pattern and see if there is some change in the pattern.
Maintain desirable behaviour by using schedules of reinforcements.
Evaluation
If the problems are solved then the final step is the evaluation. This helps managers to trace and review any changes before the implementation of the program. It can also provide feedback to managers.
Restraining forces of Change
Change is a creative and rational process. Due to rapid innovation in technology, environmental pressures or market decline pressure or any type of external environmental pressure, organisation tends to change and this change is to be brought about by manager. So employee's often resist these changes.
Barriers to organisation change can be well understood by "force field analysis".
Force field analysis is a model created by Kurt Lewin and is used to assist or hinder the implementation of change. There are two forces associated with it:
Driving force - It is a force that pushes for change or tends to initiate and keep it going.
Restraining force - This is a type of force which hinders change.
When the driving forces and restraining forces are equal, change will not occur. Change does not occur even when the restraining forces are stronger than the driving forces. For the occurrence of the change, the driving forces must overcome the restraining forces.
Model for change
Change is a common thread that runs through all businesses regardless of size, industry and age. Knowing the basic need of the organisation and implementing it in right direction can lead to successful change. It is very important for managers to manage change in productive manner.
Kurt Lewin developed a model for understanding organisational change and it is still used in many organisations world wide.
His model refers to Unfreeze - Change - Refreeze and is a three stage process.
1. Unfreeze
This is primary stage in any organisation, here managers prepare employee to accept changes. Here manager can discuss previous issue responsible for changes as declining sales, poor financial results, customer satisfaction surveys etc.
First stage of this model can be stressful and difficult at times as the change is initiated here. Motivating and encouraging subordinates is the major task for management.
2. Change
In this stage, people start looking in the new direction given by the manager and so start responding to change. This change does to happen overnight, people take time in this transition and this can be seen via change curve.
Lot of time, communication and efforts are required in this stage.
3. Refreeze
This is the last stage and management refreezes when people in an organisation start embracing new changes. In other words shaping process is done and is made sure that is being used on daily basis. It is still very important stage although change is constant as employee often gets into transition trap.
As a manger, it is his responsibility to make their employee understand ,how will change benefit their organisation, thanks them for enduring pain during transformation and motivate them further to sustain it.
Why do people resist change?
It is important for managers to anticipate some resistance among employees and plan good strategy for change.
There are many factors that hinder change. Some of them are:
Discomfort and uncertainty: Comfort varies from individual to individual. One may be comfortable with ambiguity, other may not. Similarly uncertainty plays a vital role in resistance to change. For e.g., employee may be anxious or uncertain to accept new changes in their routine.
Dislike of change: The major problem managers faces is to introduce a change in an organization, as people will tend to dislike it and resist it.
Lack of clarity as what is expected: Due to the lack of clarity of proposed changes, employees generally fail to convert a change initiative into supporting action. This happens because of the lack of clear understanding of what supportive actions would look like.
Attachment to the established culture: Cultural system consists of beliefs, values, norms, artefacts, etc. And readiness for change can effect the attachment to existing culture. When an individual attempts to alter a norm, a person is expelled by the group. Similarly in an external group the process may be even more difficult.
Threat to position power: There is threat in an individual that change will lower down their status or prestige in a group, hence this also meets resistance.
Threat to security: Change in career opportunities, reduction in wages, increase job demand, loss of job, reduction in benefits, are some threats to security which an individual faces while facing changes. Individual or group perceives that change will lessen their security and so they resist it.
Managing resistance to change
Managing resistance to change is essential to enhance successful OD program therefore it is important to recognize -:
1. Prediction of resistance to change and
2. Resistance cannot be hindered for long time.
Managers have to manage varying degree of resistance from employees. According to Kotler and Schlesinger, there are six methods of managing resistance:
Education and communication: One of the key elements of managing resistance is to educate, inform and communicate people about change. Effective communication can minimize uncertainty, fear of the unknown associated with the change. This process can be time consuming, but may lead to successful implementation.
Participation and involvement: Other way to resist change is to participate and involve actively with people. This helps to make them understand the cause and the consequences of the change effectively. It may introduce an element of compromise in decisions which could reduce the optimality of the change.
Facilitation and support: Managers can deal with resistance to change by reinforcing the change process and providing support to those who are involved in it. It may require financial support, time and interpersonal support by the managers.
Negotiation and agreement: It is a process of offering incentives, benefits to employees in order to affect resistance to change. Some examples may be employee's pension benefit in exchange of early retirement.
Manipulation and cooptation: In this process, managers buy support of certain individuals by assigning key roles to them in change process. It may be seen as a unethical attempt to trick or bribe employees and thus this approach runs a risk with it also.
Explicit and implicit coercion: Another way of resisting change is to threaten people with undesirable consequences when they show resistance to changes. E.g., firing of an employee. This is generally used when there is a risk of organisation's survival.
Hence, manager's role in reinforcing their subordinate's behaviour to overcome restraining force of change is very crucial. He should know how to deal with the resistance using his power in a gentle manner, manipulating those who oppose it, motivate their employees towards change, reinforce them by giving rewards or punishments, solve their problems and interact with them for the development and success of the organization.
Various organizational theories such as reinforcement are widely applied across the world for better functioning of group and enhancement of personalities. It is a form of both organization and individual learning which is cyclical and experiential in nature.
Finally, all employees must be reviewed on their performance regularly. Feedbacks should be given in a manner that they acquire complex behaviour such as shaping as this is one of the most powerful techniques used to modify individual behaviour.
Example of an organization applying change:
McDonald's Change Story
Due to the high calories in McDonald's meal, there was a gain in weight and cholesterol level of independent film maker Morgan Spurlock, who spent one long month restricting his diet to only McDonald's food. Before embarking on this journey, he underwent a full medical examination and was deemed to be physically healthy man, but one month later, the diagnosis was different. He gained 25 pounds and his cholesterol level had jumped from 168 to 230. This claim of Spurlock was experienced as a documentary called Super Size Me, an entrant in 2004's Sundance film festival. He wanted to show the link between foods like McDonald's and Obesity, a co-relation that the company has long denied. This documentary became one of the biggest grossing documentaries in American history as it highlighted health issues and so lot of pressure build up on McDonald's operations.
As a result, company's sales and revenue dropped. They lost market share to competitors such as Wendy and Burger King. Finally in 2003, Cantaloupe began by cutting back new stores openings, introducing slogan ' I'm Lovin it ', featuring pop singer Justin Timberlake, to target young generation and major part was the introduction of the new salad's menu. This new menu helped to draw female customers to dine at their restaurants. Now customers are given healthier and tastier menu options.
CONCLUSION
Manager's role in an organisation is highly valued in terms of reinforcement. It is therefore important to reinforce employees periodically and systematically each time in order to move them closer to the desired response. This principle to influence behaviour with the help of reward and punishment is based on operant conditioning.
In this paper, application of this behavioural theory is explained in detail with its various effects and examples. Changes in the environment of an organisation, its importance and resistance are briefly discussed in terms of managerial aspect.
Finally, following points can be concluded:
Reinforcement theory is essential in a work setting as it helps in shaping the behaviour of individual.
It motivates and encourages employees to give better outcomes and can be applied by using various types of reinforcements (positive, negative reinforcement, extinction, punishment)
Better feedbacks and acknowledgement should be provided by the managers.
Let employees know which behaviour should be reinforced
Introduce change in the environment by explaining its importance.
Shape employees by overcoming barriers of change
Make them understand the significance and effectiveness of organisational development and behavioural theories.
