The methods to produce nanoparticles from atoms are chemical processes based on transformations in solution e.g. sol-gel processing, chemical vapour deposition (CVD), plasma or flame spraying synthesis, laser pyrolysis, atomic or molecular condensation (Bottom-up Methods for Making Nanotechnology Products, www.azonano.com). The chemical processes mentioned above rely on appropriate "metal-organic" molecules as precursors. The low processing temperature in the chemical process differs Sol-gel from the others. Due to the same reason the sol-gel process is cost-effective. The flow of reactants (gas, liquid in form of aerosols or mixtures of both) is introduced to high-energy flame produced in the spraying process for example by plasma spraying equipment or carbon dioxide laser (Bottom-up Methods for Making Nanotechnology Products, www.azonano.com). The reactants decompose and particles are formed in a flame by homogeneous nucleation and growth. Rapid cooling results in formation of nanoscale particles (Bottom-up Methods for Making Nanotechnology Products, www.azonano.com).
The chemical processes the materials based on changes in solution such as sol-gel processing, hydro or solvo thermal syntheses, Metal Organic Decomposition (MOD), or in the vapour phase chemical vapour deposition (CVD) . The routes of most chemical rely on the availability of appropriate "metal-organic" molecules as precursors (Bottom-up Methods for Making Nanotechnology Products, www.azonano.com). The most widely used precursors are metal b-diketonates and metal carboxylates, metal alkoxides. These are the most cost effective products.
The different types of techniques which uses bottom-up nanofabrication are:
Sol-gel Process
Aerosol-Based Processes
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
Atomic or Molecular Condensation
Gas-Phase Condensation to Produce Metal Nanopowders
Supercritical Fluid Synthesis
Spinning to Make Thin Polymer Fibers
Templates to Form Nanoparticles
Self-Assembly of Nanoparticles
Sol-gel Process
The sol gel technique is a long-established industrial process for the generation of colloidal nanoparticles from liquid phase, that has been further developed in last years for the production of advanced nanomaterials and coatings. Sol-gel-processes are well adapted for oxide nanoparticles and composites nanopowders synthesis. The main advantages of sol-gel techniques for the preparation of materials are low temperature of processing, versatility, and flexible rheology allowing easy shaping and embedding. They offer unique opportunities for access to organic-inorganic materials. The most commonly used precursors of oxides are alkoxides, due to their commercial availability and to the high liability of the M-OR bond allowing facile tailoring in situ during processing.
Figure 2. System model for nanocomposites produced by sol-gel.
Aerosol-Based Processes
Aerosol-based processes are a common method for the industrial production of nanoparticles. Aerosols can be defined as solid or liquid particles in a gas phase, where the particles can range from molecules up to 100 µm in size. Aerosols were used in industrial manufacturing long before the basic science and engineering of the aerosols were understood. For example, carbon black particles used in pigments and reinforced car tires are produced by hydrocarbon combustion; titania pigment for use in paints and plastics is made by oxidation of titanium tetrachloride; fumed silica and titania formed from respective tetrachlorides by flame pyrolysis; optical fibres are manufactured by similar process.
Traditionally, spraying is used either to dry wet materials or to deposit coatings. Spraying of the precursor chemicals onto a heated surface or into the hot atmosphere results in precursor pyrolysis and formation of the particles. For example, a room temperature electro-spraying process was developed at Oxford University to produce nanoparticles of compound semiconductors and some metals. In particular, CdS nanoparticles were produced by generating aerosol micro-droplets containing Cd salt in the atmosphere containing hydrogen sulphide.
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
CVD consists in activating a chemical reaction between the substrate surface and a gaseous precursor. Activation can be achieved either with temperature (Thermal CVD) or with a plasma (PECVD: Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition). The main advantage is the nondirective aspect of this technology. Plasma allows to decrease significantly the process temperature compared to the thermal CVD process. CVD is widely used to produce carbon nanotubes.
Atomic or Molecular Condensation
This method is used mainly for metal containing nanoparticles. A bulk material is heated in vacuum to produce a stream of vaporised and atomised matter, which is directed to a chamber containing either inert or reactive gas atmosphere. Rapid cooling of the metal atoms due to their collision with the gas molecules results in the condensation and formation of nanoparticles. If a reactive gas like oxygen is used then metal oxide nanoparticles are produced.
Gas-Phase Condensation to Produce Metal Nanopowders
The theory of gas-phase condensation for the production of metal nanopowders is well known, having been first reported in 1930. Gas-phase condensation uses a vacuum chamber that consists of a heating element, the metal to be made into nano-powder, powder collection equipment and vacuum hardware.
Figure 3. Principle of inert gas condensation material.
How the Gas-Phase Condensation Process Works
The process utilises a gas, which is typically inert, at pressures high enough to promote particle formation, but low enough to allow the production of spherical particles. Metal is introduced onto a heated element and is rapidly melted. The metal is quickly taken to temperatures far above the melting point, but less than the boiling point, so that an adequate vapour pressure is achieved. Gas is continuously introduced into the chamber and removed by the pumps, so the gas flow moves the evaporated metal away from the hot element. As the gas cools the metal vapour, nanometer-sized particles form. These particles are liquid since they are still too hot to be solid. The liquid particles collide and coalesce in a controlled environment so that the particles grow to specification, remaining spherical and with smooth surfaces. As the liquid particles are further cooled under control, they become solid and grow no longer. At this point the nanoparticles are very reactive, so they are coated with a material that prevents further interaction with other particles (agglomeration) or with other materials.
Supercritical Fluid Synthesis
Methods using supercritical fluids are also powerful for the synthesis of nanoparticles. For these methods, the properties of a supercritical fluid (fluid forced into supercritical state by regulating its temperature and its pressure) are used to form nanoparticles by a rapid expansion of a supercritical solution. Supercritical fluid method is currently developed at the pilot scale in a continuous process.
Spinning to Make Thin Polymer Fibers
An emerging technology for the manufacture of thin polymer fibers is based on the principle of spinning dilute polymer solutions in a high voltage electric field. Electro spinning is a process by which a suspended drop of polymer is charged with thousands of volts. At a characteristic voltage the droplet forms a Taylor cone, and a fine jet of polymer releases from the surface in response to the tensile forces generated by interaction of an applied electric field, with the electrical charge carried by the jet. This produces a bundle of polymer fibers. The jet can be directed to a grounded surface and collected as a continuous web of fibers ranging in size from a few µm's to less than 100 nm.
Templates to Form Nanoparticles
Any material containing regular nano-sized pores or voids can be used as a template to form nanoparticles. Examples of such templates include porous alumina, zeolites, di-block co-polymers, dendrimers, proteins and other molecules. The template does not have to be a 3D object. Artificial templates can be created on a plane surface or a gas-liquid interface by forming self-assembled monolayers.
Self-Assembly of Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles of a wide range of materials - including a variety of organic and biological compounds, but also inorganic oxides, metals, and semiconductors - can be processed using chemical self-assembly techniques. These techniques exploit selective attachment of molecules to specific surfaces, biomolecular recognition and self-ordering principles (e.g. the preferential docking of DNA strands with complementary base pairs) as well as well-developed chemistry for attaching molecules onto clusters and substrates (e.g. thiol (-SH) end groups) and other techniques like reverse micelle, sonochemical, and photochemical synthesis to realise 1-D, 2-D and 3-D self-assembled nanostructures. The molecular building blocks act as parts of a jigsaw puzzle that join together in a perfect order without an obvious driving force present.
Molecular Nanotechnology Offers Visions for the Future
Long-term and visionary nanotechnological conceptions, however, go far beyond these first approaches. This applies in particular to the development of biomimetic materials with the ability of self-organisation, self-healing and self-replication by means of molecular nanotechnology. One objective here is the combination of synthetic and biological materials, architectures and systems, respectively, the imitation of biological processes for technological applications. This field of nanobiotechnology is at present still in the state of basic research, but is regarded as one of the most promising research fields for the future.
