To establish the relevance between previous research and the aim and objectives of this investigative project the literature review has focused on studies that have looked into safety leadership concepts and theories that appear to offer the greatest influence in educating and improving safety perception, participation and acceptance of safety change. The authors aim and objectives of this research also supports the defence initiative for modernisation and the improvement of leadership; based on the rationale that a leader is measured by their effectiveness and the perceptions of superiors and subordinates alike (MOD DLC, 2011, p. 66).
From a military perspective training doctrine is based on a premise that leadership is about people and it is the stated aim of Defence to put people first. The Defence Leadership Centre (DLC) offers the classification of leadership as visionary and the projection of personality and character to inspire people to achieve the desired outcome. Leadership therefore could be seen as a combination of example, persuasion and compulsion dependent on the situation. In contrast management could be described as primarily the allocation and control of resources (human, material and financial) to achieve objectives, often within the constraints of time. Management requires the capability to deploy a range of techniques and skills to enhance and facilitate the planning, organization and execution of the business (MOD DLC, 2004, p. 2).
In the military management and leadership are represented as being two sides of the coin of command. The military perspective of management is that is brings order and consistency to complex organizations involving planning and budgeting. Leadership is viewed within the military as the process of setting direction, developing a vision of the future and strategies for achieving the vision. In summary military management is about controlling and problem solving whilst leadership is about motivating and inspiring.
2.2 Effective Leadership Style - Concepts
Seeking a research viewpoint of leadership and management Yukl (2010, p. 24) reasons there is continued debate about differences between leadership and management. It is apparent that an individual can lead without managing, and can also manage without leading. Yukl (2010, p. 27) proposes the following definition, 'leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives'. Stashevsky and Burke (2006, p. 5) suggest that leadership is about coping with change and that leaders set direction by developing a vision for the future, aligning others by communicating their vision and inspiring to overcome hurdles. Robins (2005, p. 332) defines leadership as "the ability to influence a group towards achievement of goals".
Yukl (2010, p. 28) suggests that research scholars conception of the indicators of leadership effectiveness differ, it seems that most researchers evaluate leadership effectiveness in terms of the consequences of influence on a single individual, a team or group, or an organization, and that the most commonly used measure of leader effectiveness is the extent to which the performance of the team or organizational unit is enhanced and the attainment of the goals is facilitated. In an overview of the major research approaches Yukl (2010, p. 30) advocates that one of the more convenient means to classify leadership theory and research is according to the type of variable that is emphasized the most. According to Yukl (2010, p. 30) the three types of variables that are pertinent for understanding leadership effectiveness comprise of (1) characteristics of leaders, (2) characteristics of followers, and (3) characteristics of the situation. Table 2-1 illustrates the key variables in each category and Figure 2-1 depicts suggested likely casual relationships among the variables (Yukl, 2010, p. 31).
Leadership theories, Yukl (2010, p. 30) suggests, emphasises one category more than the other as the primary basis for explaining effective leadership, and leader characteristics have been emphasized most often over the past half-century; furthermore he offers that another common practice is to limit the focus to one type of leader characteristic, namely traits, behaviour, or power. To any organisation good leadership is critical; research to-date presents many diverse descriptions of leadership in an endeavour to depict a clear impression of the roles that leadership place within life and business alike. Research evidence presented so far suggests that it is best to concentrate on one type of leader characteristic, and in the context of this study trait, behaviour, situational, and transforming leadership theories have been identified as applicable to the aims and objectives of the research project. Within a military environment the authority to command is granted to an individual to direct, co-ordinate and control military forces. The challenge and difficulty for military diving safety leadership could been seen as the projection of personality and character to get subordinates to do what is required of them and to engender within them the confidence that breeds initiative and the acceptance of risk and responsibility; therefore the intention of this study will be to focus on the most effective leadership characteristics that achieve this.
Table 2-1. Leadership Theories Key Variables (Yukl, 2010, p. 30)
Leadership Theories Key Variables
Characteristics of the Leader
Traits (motives, personality, values)
Confidence and optimism
Skills and expertise
Behaviour
Integrity (honesty, behaviour consistent with values)
Influences tactics
Attributions about followers
Characteristics of the Followers
Traits (needs, values, self-concepts)
Confidence and optimism
Skills and expertise
Attributions about the leader
Trust in the leader
Task commitment and effort
Satisfaction with job and leader
Characteristics of the Situation
Type of organisational unit
Size of unit
Position, power, and authority of the leader
Task structure and complexity
Task interdependence
Organizational culture
Environmental uncertainty
External dependences
National cultural values
Figure 2-1. Casual Relationship among the Primary Types of Leadership Process
(Yukl, 2010, p. 31)
Performance Outcomes
Follower Attitudes and Behaviour
Influence Variables
Leader Behaviour
Leader Traits and Skills
Situational Variables
The effectiveness of a leadership style within a work place will be dependent on the characteristics of the leader, the situation, the nature of the relationship with subordinates, or any combination of these factors (Horn and Walker, 2008, p. 511). It appears from the vast amount of research that there seems to be no simple answer to the question of how to evaluate leadership effectiveness; however in the context of this research which serves to assist in the development of safety leadership and individual perception the following leadership thinking and concepts are being reviewed with the specific focus to explore their application within the high risk military diving environment.
Ladyshewsky (2007, p. 426) explains that industry invests significant resources on training and development of its leaders. Ladyshewsky further suggests that the reasons for this investment are to enhance the quality of work life within the organization and to enhance efficiency, effectiveness and productivity for the company. However, Ladyshewsky reasons that this investment in training does not always pay off and cites Cromwell and Kolb (2004) who report that only 10 to 15 percent of employee training results in long-term transfer of learning to the work place. Ladyshewsky (2007, p. 426) advises that strategies to improve learning transfer back into the work place, therefore, are needed if organizations are to capture a return on their training investment.
2.2.1 Trait Leadership
Early iterations of trait theory focused on people who occupied significant positions and impacted society in important ways; the great people of their time (Fairholm and Fairholm, 2009, p. 7). Early leadership research sought to establish that personality traits vital for leadership success could be identified through empirical research (Horn and Walker, 2008, p. 511). Areas such as physical characteristics, facets of personality and aptitudes, were most often considered during early research on leadership traits (Horn and Walker, p. 511). Further more Horn and Walker (2008, p. 511) explain that although different researchers recognised a mixture of leadership traits and characteristics, the general consensus conveyed five major leadership traits: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability. Horn and Walker (2008, p. 511) state that "Possession of these leadership traits was believed to be the essential component for exhibiting leadership behaviour". It appears in essence that past trait studies have chiefly focused on the character traits of the leader, looking at the abilities, aptitudes, and personal aspects of the leader; also focusing on the significant connection between individual leader attributes and an assessment of leader success. Research maintains that common character behaviours identified in renowned leaders could assist others to develop their leadership abilities. In fact the military leadership competency framework for recruitment and promotion of individuals includes the identification of personal character traits and leadership qualities such as: integrity, vision, communication, decision taking, innovation, humility, and professional knowledge.
2.2.2 Behaviour Leadership
Fairholm and Fairholm (2009, p. 9) explain that researchers have studied Behaviour theory since the mid-twentieth century, and supposes that the rationale behind Behavioural research is that concentrating on studying observable behaviour may well be more operationally useful than looking at traits. Yukl (2010, p. 31) summarizes that research into Behaviour theory concentrates on the observation of leader behaviour, how time is spent, classic patterns of activities, responsibilities and functions; leadership behavioural research has also investigated how managers cope with the requirements, limitations and role conflicts in their jobs. Fairholm and Fairholm (2009, p. 38) cites Gardner's (1990) argument that most leadership behaviours are learned and that this learning process is facilitated through teaching and observation. Doyle and Smith (2001, p. 13) put forward that as a result of research different patterns of behaviour have emerged and have been grouped together and labelled as styles; and that the four main styles are:
Concern for task - here leaders give emphasis to the success of tangible objectives. They strive for high levels of output, and ways to organize people and activities in order to meet those objectives.
Concern for people - in this style, leaders embrace their followers as people - for example their needs, interests, problems, and development. Leadership is not simply about units of production or means to an end.
Directive leadership - this style is typified by leaders making the decisions for others, and expecting subordinates to follow instructions.
Participative leadership - with this style of leadership, leaders make an effort to share decision-making with others, taking the input of others into account. Leaders encourage participation and contribution from the team members, and assist team members to feel involved and part of the decision-making development and progression.
Examples of behavioural leadership style theoretical models are Blake and Mouton (1964) and McGregor (1960). The Managerial Grid (Figure 2-2) developed by Blake and Mouton (1964), is based on five core styles of leadership measured against two axes, concern for task and concern for people. The Theory X or Theory Y (Figure 2-3) devised by McGregor's (1960), is centred on the directive leadership style is contrasted with participative leadership style. The significance of these models is that their application is reasoned as flexible depending on the individuals involved and the task; therefore consideration of these methods within a military diving environment is relevant where tasking and manpower is can be extremely diverse.
Figure 2-2. Blake and Mouton (1964), 'The Managerial Grid'
(Leadership Development)
http://finntrack.co.uk/images/leadership+grid+2.jpg
Figure 2-3. Illustration of McGregor's Theory X' or Theory Y'
(The Institute for Working Futures)
http://www.marcbowles.com/courses/adv_dip/module1/chapter1/images/amc1_ch1_two2_clip_image001.gif
2.2.3 Situational Leadership
Situational theory stems from the view that behaviour theory is not sufficient for the complex world of work and society because specific behaviours are most useful only in specific kinds of situations (Fairholm and Fairholm, 2009, p. 11). Yukl (2010, p. 32) presents that the situational approach gives emphasis to the importance of circumstantial factors that influence leadership process; and that major situational variables include the characteristics of followers, the kind of the work performed by the team, the type of organisation, and the nature of the environment. Military tasking frequently requires a leader to react to shifting situations, requiring the employment of a rapidly developing plan to support the progression of the team to meet the current task; whilst identifying the strengths and aptitudes of team members and the unit as a whole. Research signals support for the idea that situational leadership deliberates on what leaders are able to do in specific situations that vary due to internal and external forces and that the use of situational leadership models will assist in sustaining effective leadership. Military leadership training strategy includes Hersey and Blanchard's model to illustrate a different aspect of leadership, giving a varied approach to leadership thinking (MOD DLC, 2004, p. A-21). Hersey and Blanchard's model identifies leadership styles that can be adopted to deal with different situations; an example is depicted at Figure 2-4. This model could be of particular relevance as an effective style within the high risk military diving environment, where the leadership of a given task and situation is directed by the consideration of the amount of support verses directive behaviour and the level of maturity of the subordinates to achieve a diving task safely.
Figure 2-4. Hersey and Blanchard Leadership Style and Situation (Situational Leadership II)
http://bp1.blogger.com/_qVqOWUwhcqM/R3CcMlWd_QI/AAAAAAAAAGI/i6DAs1vV2t0/s400/Situational+LeadershipII.gif
Horn and Walker (2008, p. 516) describes Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard as a contingency theory of leadership that proposes the use of different patterns of leadership behaviour depending on the maturity (development) of an individual follower. Horn and Walker (2008, p. 516) further clarify that maturity (development) includes two related components, which are:
"Job maturity - referring to a follower's task relevant skills and technical knowledge. This component is directly reflective of the follower's ability to perform a task".
"Psychological maturity - indicative of the follower's self-confidence and self-respect. This aspect influences a follower's willingness to perform a task".
In relation to safety leadership within a military diving environment, which can change quickly, the ability of a military diving supervisor to react appropriately according to the situation and lead those under their command is vital. Research into situational leadership, and in particular contingency theory, provides credible valid argument and presentation of methods to support that this could be considered an effective leadership concept for military diving safety leadership.
2.2.4 Transforming Leadership
Researchers in the 1980s became interested in the emotional and symbolic aspects of leadership; and how leaders influence followers to make self-sacrifices and put the requirements of the mission or the organisation above their materialistic self-interest (Yukl, 2010, p. 262). The foundation behind Transforming leadership is that it appeals to the moral values of followers and attempt to increase followers' awareness about ethical issues and to organise their energy and resources to improve organizations (Yukl, 2010, p. 262).
Horn and Walker (2008, p. 519) define Transformational leadership as a leadership style that changes and transforms individuals and focuses on the process by which the leader engages with team members to motivate and facilitate the achievement of the individual and teams full potential. A different perspective is also offered by Horn and Walker (2008, p. 519) who cites Bass (1994) as suggesting that the leader transforms and motivates individuals by creating awareness of the importance of task results, inspiring individuals to exceed their own self-interest for the sake of the organization or team, and stimulating their aspirations and drive for success. A linked, but differing point of view is given by Ã-zarall (2003, p. 335) who cites Bass (1994) as implying that Transformational leadership is connected to outcomes such as leadership effectiveness, innovativeness, quality, improvement and both subjective and objective performance assessment. It appears that amongst the researchers a common belief is that the key to effective transformational leadership is the ability to form a relationship and motivate subordinates whilst drawing the team and the individual's attention to the significance of results. Research however does differ in opinion and suggests that an underpinning function is more centred on moralistic principled leadership as a transformational process. Transforming leadership from a military diving leadership perspective has some relevance, as military diving operations are usually carried out in a small team where the leader can forge close relationships creating a collective motivational spirit towards safety and the desire to be the best team that can be relied upon to the achieve task.
In contrast Horn and Walker (2008, p. 513) explains that Transactional leadership is the exchange between leaders and followers; and is associated with four types of leadership behaviour: contingent reward, active management by exception, passive management by exception, and laissez-faire leadership. Horn and Walker (2008, p. 513) provides a more in depth explanation of each type follows:
Contingent reward behaviour is the explanation to an individual or team member of what is expected in order to gain rewards. Incentives, such as money and time off, are examples of remuneration to motivate individuals or the team to perform. (Due to military function and terms of service the only incentive that could be utilised would be to grant time off as a reward).
Management by exception refers to leadership that employs corrective criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcement. A leader employing the active form of management by exception is always on the lookout for problems and takes corrective actions immediately following a minor mistake or rule violation by a follower. A leader using the passive form does not monitor followers as closely, and only reacts to problems once they have occurred. (Engagement by military leadership offering positive and negative opinion would be of significance to effective leadership and the promotion of a safe diving culture. Passive monitoring could be deemed ineffective within a high risk environment as a system that only monitors and reacts as problems arise would not be deemed as practical safety leadership where prevention is more desirable).
Delegative leadership (Laissez-faire) is descriptive of a leader who adopts a hands-off approach and allows team members to make decisions. Leaders provide the equipment and resources; team members are expected to complete the task with very little guidance. (Within the military this leadership style could possibly be effective in situations where team members are highly skilled, motivated and capable of working on their own).
Kouzes and Posner (2007, p. 47) put forward that "success in leadership, success in business, and success in life have been, are now, and will continue to be a function of how well people work and play together". Kouzes and Posner have carried out research on effective personal leadership since 1983, and their research studies uncovered five practices common to effective personal leadership. Seemingly effective leadership adopt the following five practices as described within Table 2-2.
Table 2-2. The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership
(Kouzes and Posner, 2007, p. 47)
Practice
Commitment
Model the Way
A Leaders' actions speak louder than words; leaders must become involved and demonstrate their commitment.
Inspire a Shared Vision
Leaders' must have a vision of change and must be able to articulately share that vision with other.
Challenge the Process
Successful leaders' use change and innovation.
Enable Others to Act
Leaders' acknowledge that successful leadership and accomplishments are not the result of a single person. Leaders foster teamwork and encourage others to exceed their own expectations.
Encourage the Heart
Successful leaders know that constituents require recognition and celebration. This fosters a strong sense of community.
2.3 Leadership Effects - Perception, Participation and Acceptance of Change
The British Health and Safety Executive (HSE) actively encourage organizations to improve their safety culture (Cox and Flin, 1998, p. 191). O'Dea and Flin (2001, p. 39) cites Reason (1997) who proposes that management commitment to safety is recognised as a fundamental component of an organisation's safety culture. Therefore an effective leadership style that influences the satisfaction and performance of subordinates would be an important dynamic in-line with an organisations safety culture commitment. O'Dea and Flin (2001, p. 41) presents research into the role and experiences in relation to safety of site managers in the offshore gas and oil industry. The research focused around a survey of Offshore Installation Managers (OIMs), and aimed to test five hypotheses by using a questionnaire to gather data relating to OIMs' level of experience and leadership style, as well as their knowledge of safety and leadership within the industry (O'Dea and Flin, 2001, p. 42). In their conclusion O'Dea and Flin (2001, p. 54) suggests that OIM managers are keenly aware of their role as leaders in safety and believe that the best way to promote safety is by developing good quality participative and open relationships with subordinates.
Leadership quality might impact on organizational climate, and as a result can have a significant impact on organizational performance (Tsung-Chih, Chi-Hsiang and Chin-Chung, 2008, p. 307). Tsung-Chih et al. (2008, p. 307) make reference that there is "an overall lack of models specifying the relationship among safety leadership, safety climate and safety performance", Tsung-Chih et al. (2008, p. 308) attempt to establish the conceptual definition of safety leadership as ''the process of interaction between leaders and followers, through which leaders could exert their influence on followers to achieve organizational safety goals under the circumstances of organizational and individual factors''. Tsung-Chih et al. (2008, p. 315) conclude that the practical application of their study reveals that safety leadership and safety climate are two important predictors of a good safety performance and that safety climate takes an arbitrating role in the relationship between safety leadership and safety performance. The research of Tsung-Chih et al (2008) has been included within this literature review in order to add depth by gaining a perspective from evidence presented on safety leadership and climate within a low risk environment as much can be gleaned from cross comparison. Research determined that safety commitment and the actions of an organisations leadership is most important, and that the development of a strategy to improve the safety climate within the organisation will then have a positive effect on safety performance. Within the context of the military diving safety environment the visible involvement of an organisations senior management to develop a positive safety climate will demonstrate a strong leadership commitment to safety.
Research by Graetz (2000, p. 550) discusses and explores the role of leadership in managing the challenge of deliberate large-scale change and whether it is possible to isolate factors that are essential to leading change effectively, that effective change leadership involves instrumental and charismatic roles mixed with subject matter expertise and strong person to person skills. Graetz's (2000, p. 550) qualitative case study approach involved three multinational companies operating in Australia and the use of semi-structured open ended question interviews supported by organisational supplied documentation, publications and published literature to gather the data to support the research aims. The findings of this study suggest that the cross-case analysis indicates that effective change leaders recognise the importance of blending the charismatic and instrumental dimensions of change leadership (Graetz, 2000, p. 556). Furthermore, Graetz (2000, p. 556) found that the personal participation of senior leadership indicates the level of commitment to change and heightens the sense of purpose for change. A review of a safety leadership qualitative case study is of significant relevance to this research which is looking at a case study of a small military diving group with the objective to identify effective military safety leadership, which promotes the acceptance of change within a small specialist military environment. The research methods reported are broad and offer a diverse viewpoint, which support that leadership characteristics and the ability to communicate well are key to promoting and supporting change within an organisation. The reported observation by Graetz, (2000, p. 556) of the involvement of senior leadership is a relevant viewpoint to this research and in the perception of a commitment of senior leadership within the context of a military organisation dependent on a high safety culture to maintain effective operational capability.
Kelloway, Mullen and Francis (2006, p. 76) set out with the aim of investigating the effect of safety-specific transformational and passive leadership on safety consequences. Kelloway et al. (2006, p. 76) utilised a safety leadership model used in previous research by Barling, Loughlin, and Kelloway (2002) and for the purposes of their research Kelloway et al. (2006, p. 79) expand upon this model. The results of this study indicate through confirmatory factor analysis, hierarchical regression analysis and structural equation modelling that all of the hypotheses pertaining to safety specific passive leadership were supported (Kelloway et al. 2006, p. 80). Kelloway et al. (2006, p. 85) conclude that "passive and transformational leadership had approximately equal, but opposite, effects on safety outcomes, further supporting the distinctiveness of the two constructs and suggesting that they are of equal relevance in the study of workplace safety".
2.3 Summary
The review of the relevant leadership theories and safety leadership research literature has revealed that effective leadership is defined in many different ways; however the majority of research suggests the premise of effective leadership involves an influence process concerned with facilitating the performance of an assembled task. Leadership has been reflected upon in different ways, dependant on the researchers' methodological penchant and classification of leadership. This literature review has established key leadership concepts that research perception suggest as being effective leadership styles that conceivably encourage safety participation and acceptance of change, whilst promoting the awareness of an effective safety culture. Effective leadership evaluation has focused on the relationship effect between followers and other organisational stakeholders.
Early leadership research centred around Trait theories, and from this research the general conclusion is that to be a successful leader interpersonal, genitive and technical skills are required, and research to-date still implies that leadership traits has important implications for improving effective leadership. Moreover information regarding an individual's traits and skills is deemed essential for the selection of personnel for leadership roles and career progression; this is certainly an aspect that is included within military leadership promotion competency framework. Over the years leadership studies have broadened from early Trait concepts; looking at Behavioural, Situational, and Transformation leadership, where research has focused on effective leadership within differing situations, subordinate satisfaction, performance and the establishment of leader follower exchange. Results from these studies, though inconclusive, suggest that the use of the appropriate leadership behaviour is matched to the situation and reflects a high concern for task objective and relationships.
This literature review has principally centred on research into leadership and management styles and organisational change within the commercial sector, as to-date very little research study has focused on military specific organisations. Research has shown that effective leadership styles are an important factor in developing and promoting open and participative relationships with subordinates, and have also indicated that the establishment of a good safety culture through effective leadership and commitment facilitates followers' perceptions, participation and acceptance of change.
The RN ethos regarding its people is defined as: "The enduring spirit derived from people's loyalty to ship, unity or team, sustained by high professional standards and strong leadership, which gives courage in adversity and the determination to fight to win" (MOD DCDC, 2011, p. 173). The knowledge acquired from this literature has given the researcher a clearer understanding of key leadership and follower concepts and their conceivable application in context to a specialist military diving specific organisation. Capitalising on the literature review the establishment of a clear research strategy will allow for a better understanding of people, and their attachment, in real world situations, and an empirical investigation of present day military diving safety leadership within its real life context.
