School feeding programmes are powerful tools for alleviating day-to-day hunger pains. It is suggested that giving children a daily breakfast at school may improve their scholastic achievement (WFP, 2007). Results of international studies indicate that breakfast makes such a significant contribution to a child's nutrient intake for the day that a child who misses breakfast is unlikely to make up the deficit of nutrients during the rest of the day (Kazianga, 2009). A study done in SA by Labadarios (1997:91) indicated that approximately one out of five rural and urban black primary school children, as well as urban colored primary school children, do not eat breakfast before going to school and feel hungry as a result. Breakfast usually provides children with approximately one-third of their daily energy and other nutritional requirements. If the children have an inadequate breakfast at home, they may suffer from periods of hunger. The alleviation of short-term hunger may affect cognitive functions, such as memory and efficiency of information processing. Children's classroom behaviour, their attention and participation may also improve, and fidgeting may be reduced (Hinrichs, 2010). Efforts targeted primarily at relieving short-term hunger should focus on providing breakfast or a small snack shortly after children arrive at school (Hinrichs, 2010). Developing countries experience many problems in trying to isolate the effects of school feeding from other socioeconomic, cultural and educational factors. Food distribution programmes, including school feeding, are not always implemented sufficiently to show beneficial effects. Problems with regard to supply, administration, storage and delivery, inter alia, may occur (Ibid). However, school feeding programmes can have numerous benefits. Children from poor families or marginal communities are frequently absent from school and this reduces the likelihood of their benefiting from educational activities.
2.2 Benefits of school feeding programmes
School feeding programmes are one of the main interventions used to address the challenge of reducing hunger worldwide. School feeding falls directly within the scope of the United Nations declaration and within the first three Millennium Development Goals (MDG 2000), namely:
1. MDG 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than US$1 a day - hunger perpetuates poverty by reducing productivity.
Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger - poverty prevents people from producing or acquiring the food they need.
2. MDG 2: Achieve universal primary education:
Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling - hunger reduces school attendance and impairs learning capacity and lack of education reduces earning capacity and increases the risk of hunger.
3. MDG 3. Promote gender equality and empower women:
Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education, no later than 2015 - hunger reduces school attendance more for girls than for boys, and gender inequality perpetuates the cycle in which undernourished women give birth to children of low birth weight (FAO, 2005).
If school meals are of good nutrient quality and quantity and the supply is efficient and continues for some time, problems regarding the children's underlying nutritional status, such as wasting and iron deficiency, should improve, which may lead to improved cognition and attentiveness. School meals could increase the amount of time children spend in school. Factors such as enrolment at the correct age, regular school attendance and punctual daily arrival at school are significant predictors of achievement levels. If school meals are provided in areas where poverty is severe, the cost to parents of sending their children to school may be reduced and thus enrolment and school attendance can be increased. Providing food to take home is an even greater incentive to extremely poor communities (Grantham-McGregor 2005:S145).
The Global Food for Education (GFE) programme has demonstrated how much can be accomplished through school feeding programmes. In Pakistan, where girls often marry young and stay at home, enrolment by girls in GFE schools increased by 32 percent because of the school meals and the tins of cooking oil provided as an education incentive to the parents. In the Lebanon GFE project, teachers reported that children have more energy, concentrate better and learn faster since school meals were introduced, while more parents learn the value of education, especially for their daughters (Grantham-McGregor et al. 1998:785).
The following figure summarizes the benefits of the programmes
Source: (Adelman, Gilligan et al. 2008:10)
2.3 Nutrition and academic performance
The relationship between nutrition and academic performance has been well documented around the world. In particular, the negative effect of under nutrition. Among others, Averett and Stifel (2007) who studied the effects of childhood over and underweight on cognitive functioning find that malnourished children tend to have lower cognitive abilities when compared to well nourished. Children who do not get enough to eat are likely to suffer from stunted growth1 and hindered mental development. In addition, Alaimo et al. (2001) report that children aged between 6 and 11 in food insecure households scored lower on arithmetic tests, were more likely to have repeated a grade, and had difficulty getting along with other children. Kaestner and Grossman (2009) find that children in the top and bottom of the weight distribution have lower achievement test scores than children in the middle of the weight distribution. Taras (2005) who reviews research from published studies on the association between nutrition among school-aged children and their performance in school and on tests of cognitive functioning, finds the following: Children with iron deficiencies sufficient to cause anemia are at a disadvantage academically, unless they receive iron therapy. Students with mild iron deficiencies and no anemia do not routinely exhibit problems in cognition or academic performance. Food insufficiency is a serious problem affecting children's ability to learn. Offering a healthy breakfast is an effective measure to improve academic performance and cognitive functioning among undernourished populations. Eating breakfast, in contrast to fasting, may improve performance on the morning eaten. The long-term effects of eating breakfast on the performance of school children who do not have physical signs of severe undernourishment are less certain. 2.4 School feeding globally
The following organisations are major role players in the current school feeding situation globally.
2.4.1 World Food Programme (WFP)
The principal objective in the WFP's Strategic Plan for 2006-2009 is "Build Stronger Partnerships to End Hunger" . Partnerships with governments, United Nations organizations and both national and international private sectors and communities are crucial. In 2005, WFP collaborated with approximately 2200 NGOs in 74 countries (WFP 2006).
The WFP uses a thorough but flexible process to target specific schools or institutions. Firstly, food-insecure areas with the most urgent education needs are identified; these include schools with low enrolment, low school attendance, high dropout rates and notable gender disparity. The WFP apply additional criteria to ensure that the food aid is targeted at schools where it can be used most effectively and efficiently. These criteria include the possibility of forming effective partnerships with national and international agencies working in the same area, the guarantee of minimum hygiene standards, community involvement, suitable storage and preparation of food, as well as the cost effectiveness of these projects (WFP 2006).
According to the WFP, the standard formula used to calculate the average serving size for pre-school and primary school meals for school feeding is; Pre-school children aged three to five years receive on average 6720 kilojoules (kJ) with 32 g protein. Primary schoolchildren aged six to twelve years should receive 8400 kJ with 40 g protein (WFP 2005).
The recommended level of protein is based on the average consumed in a local rural diet, assuming an 85 percent digestibility rating. When possible, the WFP uses a school breakfast or light mid-morning snack to boost student energy levels and help students concentrate on their lessons. Results have shown that school feeding and take-home rations, when used in combination, increase school attendance by at least 30 percent, enhancing learning opportunities and reducing dropout rates (WFP 2006).
The number of beneficiaries reached by the WFP was increased to 21.7 million children by 2005 and the aim was to reach 50 million children by the end of 2008 (WFP 2006). USAID/Haiti has been experimenting with nutrient-rich snack biscuits made from surplus grains, which not only reduce the need for cooking and other preparation at the school, but also provide micronutrients necessary for healthy growth (Drake et al. 2002:9). According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), almost 18 percent of schoolchildren in Kenya, for example, suffer from chronic stunting, with a further 34 percent showing mild to moderate growth retardation. Nutritional deprivation was found to be much more prevalent in arid and semi-arid land areas. It is not uncommon for only one meal to be prepared daily and for children to go to school without eating breakfast. The school feeding effort in Kenya has confirmed that food is an effective incentive to attract children to school (WFP 2006). In Kenya, biscuits and porridge have been used in school feeding programmes. As part of the school feeding programme, a nutritious drink and high-energy biscuit are given in the morning with porridge added at lunchtime. All food is fortified with vitamins and minerals so that the two meals provide approximately two thirds of the daily micronutrient requirements for children (Hertz 1995).
The Ecuadorian government provides $25 million each year to deliver breakfasts and lunches to 1.5 million schoolchildren in 15 000 schools through the school feeding programme. Ecuador is a low-income, food-deficit South American country that includes the Galapagos Islands. The school feeding programme is an intervention aimed at children between the ages of five and 14. With food as an additional incentive for attending school, attendance rates are significantly higher, with lower dropout rates. Once in school, a well-nourished child has a greater capacity for learning, with a longer attention span, better concentration and higher retention (Hertz 1995).
In Cameroon, a low-income food-deficit country, the ration distributed amongst schoolchildren is approximately 3000 kJ, with 18 grams of protein and 21 grams of fat, representing 30 to 35 percent of the energy intake recommended for schoolchildren according to UNESCO norms. This ration, supplemented with fresh condiments and vegetables supplied by the local community through school management committees or parents' associations, is served in the morning and in the afternoon. Enrolment levels of girls targeted in the Cameroon school feeding programme have increased by 16 percent over the last three years and by nearly 50 percent since the start of school feeding by the WFP (IFPRI 2004a).
The government in Bangladesh, with the assistance of the United Nations World Food Programme, initiated a school feeding programme in 2002. A mid-morning snack consisting of eight fortified wheat biscuits was provided to approximately 1.2 million primary school children in food-insecure areas. The biscuit provided 1260 kilojoules (kJ) and 75 percent of the Recommended Dietary Allowance of vitamins and minerals. By providing the fortified biscuits to schoolchildren, Bangladesh has raised school enrolment by 14.2 percent, increased school attendance by 1.3 days a month and reduced the probability of dropping out of school by 7.5 percent. In Bangladesh, participation in the programme raised children's body mass index (BMI) by an average of 7.5 percent and participants scored significantly higher on an achievement test than non-participants did. Mothers also reported that their children were livelier and happier and had greater interest in their studies than before participating in the school feeding programme (IFPRI 2004a).
During the last 40 years, the WFP has become the largest international implementer of Food for Education (FFE) programmes in the developing world. In 2005, FFE programmes reached approximately 21.7 million beneficiaries in 72 countries (WFP 2006) and in 2007, 2.7 million schoolchildren benefited from take-home rations that supported the retention of children in school (WFP 2006). All FFE programmes assisted by the WFP are designed to support equitable access to education amongst the most vulnerable and food-insecure population groups. By supporting FFE progra
