1. INTRODUCTION
Job analysis as a management technique was developed around 1900. It became one of the tools by which managers understood and directed organizations. The effective placement in employment by the job seekers involves making the best possible match between their qualifications, interests and expectations and the requirements of enterprises, as indicated in the job descriptions and job specifications for particular vacancies. Hiring requires planning and communication and if handled with care, can be highly productive and rewarding (Palazzo, 2002).
The job matching process requires good quality information about the job seekers to determine experience, skills, interests and general capacity. The process also requires good quality information about jobs, including the specific tasks to be performed, the standards of performance required, the conditions under which the work is performed and the organizational setting in which the work takes place.
The job placement process requires a detailed job description for each vacancy and a detailed job specification outlining the general and particular requirements for each vacancy. Both the job description and the job specification are based upon the job analysis. Without good quality Job analysis the description of job opportunities will be vague rather than precise, general rather than specific, broad rather than detailed. As, a result, people will be further disadvantaged in finding suitable jobs. When there is a vague job satisfaction - or no job specification at all - for example, it is very hard for people with disabilities to be placed in meaningful, productive and decent work. Human resource management index composed of high performance work practices such as extensive training, participation, and detailed job definition was significantly related to firm's market performance (Zhang, 2009).
Job analysis is about tasks, not about the individual job seekers. It is important, however, to analyze how the tasks of a particular job and the environment in which they take place could be modified to accommodate the capacities of people with disabilities as well. A precise description and the succeeding practical implementation of job positions, linked to the strategic goals of a firm, make the firm structure clear and, consequently, efficient (Michalska, 2002).The steps in the job analysis process are standard but the targeted outcomes are informed.
1.1. NEED FOR THE STUDY
Many organizations today, in order to be competent enough to meet the challenges and changing customer preferences, need to continuously improve the performance of the employees, for which there is a need for the organization to have a better and proper job analysis process and system in it.
Carrying out a thorough job analysis at the start of the recruitment process allows us to challenge any assumptions we may have about the way a particular job is done or the kind of person who should do it . Taking the time to think through the requirements of the job and the business may lead to the role appealing to a wider pool of applicants from more diverse backgrounds.
Job analysis can highlight areas where discrimination may arise. An accurate and fair job analysis reduces the likelihood of receiving complaints about the recruitment procedures. It also ensures knowledge and expertise about the role is gathered and retained within the organisation and allows us to redesign or adapt the role should that be required.
1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
It covers the job analysis and also its importance in building the effectiveness and efficiency of the employees, along with the work conditions and work environment and the process of job analysis followed the consequence of the management at API Unit - III of Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd., Bollaram, Hyderabad.
1.3. Structure of Dissertation
The main body of the dissertation will be made up of the following parts:
2. Literature Review:
Job Analysis is a process to identify and determine in detail of the particular job duties and requirements and the relative importance of these duties for a given job. Job Analysis is a process where judgements are made about data collected on a job.An important concept of Job Analysis is that the analysis is conducted of the Job, not the person. While Job Analysis data may be collected from incumbents through interviews or questionnaires, the product of the analysis is a description or specifications of the job, not a description of the person.
According to Robert. B (2008) administration must invest time to analyse to articulate mission, value, and goals before undertaking the organizational analysis as from the organizational analysis will flow the job analysis, job descriptions and hiring protocols. Job analysis is a systematic process of obtaining valid job information to aid management in decision-making. Systematic process is implemented in such a manner that it ensures employee co-operation, and utilises job analysis methods that are acceptable within the human resource management field (Gael, 1982). The word “valid” indicates the method by which the information was obtained for job analysis is accurately followed. Sometimes when job analysis is inadequately conducted, it results in incomplete or inaccurate information. Valid also means the information obtained meets the purpose for which the job analysis was conducted. Finally, job analysis provides critically important information that will guide management in decision-making.
In this dissertation, the result of job analysis will be used in job evaluation and decision-making of job description and their pay level. The purpose of job analysis is to elicit information pertaining to various types of jobs.
Roff and Watson (1961) of Management Selection Services Ltd suggest two stages:
Most importantly, the need to gain the trust, confidence, and co-operation of those whose jobs are being placed under scrutiny. The job analyst is naturally perceived by others with suspicion since his/her investigations are going to be used as the basis for job evaluation. People should be elucidated as to the purpose of the exercise, the reasons why it is necessary, what it is hoped will be achieved, ways in which information obtained will be collected and processed, and how decisions affecting their jobs will be arrived at. Shifting the important from the trivial aspects of a job during and after analysis is really what the whole exercise is about. Attention finally should be directed at the significant differences between jobs, having first collected all the relevant information necessary to form a complete picture of any particular unit of work. There are no hard and fast rules that can be applied; at root it is a matter of judgement (Livy, 1980). A common danger is to collect too much information, making it difficult to see the wood for the trees. On the whole, this is a more common pitfall than making just a cursory examination and ending up with a sketchy, incomplete picture. In making the analysis, if a fact is unimportant, it should immediately be discarded.
To provide a framework on which to structure both the analysis and the information obtained, it is useful to look at the job from two points of view: first, the duties and responsibilities entailed; second, the skills and personal attributes necessary for the successful execution of that job (Myers, 1986). What an individual does and what personal attributes he needs to bring to the job provide us with the dimensions critical for making evaluative decisions between the relative worth of one job and another. The main steps in the process of job analysis can be set out as follows:
Some jobs may consist of a large number of tasks and sub-tasks, and it may be convenient to group some of these into task 'taxonomies' where there is sufficient in common between them, to reduce the complexity of the analysis to manageable proportions.
For example, the skills required; order in which they have to be exercised; whether tasks are done in isolation or as part of a team effort, etc.
Identify the main duties involved, both regular and occasional. Scale the main duties according to their difficulty, frequency and importance to the job as a whole.
Physical environment involves the temperature, noise, dirt, danger, or comfortable office facilities. Social environment is regard to whether in teams, shifts, isolated work, etc. Financial conditions should concern about if a payment system is already in existence, the basic wage rate or salary currently obtaining, and any bonus, incentive schemes, fringe benefits, etc., which may apply.
Demands can be categorised into five criteria. First, physical demands, like muscular energy, sedentary work, travel, hours of work, appearance, bearing, speech, any basic medical requirements, etc. Second, intellectual demands, such as verbal or numerical ability. Another demand is skills, such as any particular psycho-motor, social or diplomatic skills called for. Fourth, experience is a necessary criteria. Some jobs call for considerable occupational experience, know-how or previously held levels of responsibility, control or decision making. The last demand is personality factors. For instance, such things called for in the job as the ability to work through other people, to provide leadership, to initiate, to work without close supervision, to possess a degree of extraversion, or the kind of temperament to cope with dull, and routine procedures.
There are, of course, many different ways in which job analysis can be tackled. Some cover the information which would normally go into a job description, and some cover the main points of a job specification (McCormick, 1980). The suggestion here is that a comprehensive job information sheet should be compiled for each job. It does not matter whether it is called a job description or job specification, provided all relevant information about the job is recorded clearly, accurately, and so far as is possible, with brevity.
There are various ways in which information can be obtained. The main methods are interview, observation, questionnaires, critical incidents, and diaries. Interview is the most flexible and productive approach for the job analyst to conduct a personal interview with the job holder. Properly structured, the interview can elicit information about all aspects of the job, the nature and sequence of the various component tasks. Much of the job activity is obvious, and not too much is hidden in the form of mental processes or in the exercise of individual discretion (Jamieson, 1991). It is unlikely that simple observation will produce all the answers, but it can always be backed up with interview and discussion. With a large number of similar jobs of a routine clerical nature, it may well be expeditious and time-saving to structure a questionnaire to be circulated to all employees in those jobs. The questionnaire must be tailor-made to elicit the right sort of responses and useful information. The replies can then be sorted, and any further details, misunderstanding, gaps or disagreements can be investigated during the interview.
The critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954) is an attempt to identify the more important, or 'noteworthy', aspects of job behaviour. Originally it was developed as a check-list rating procedure for performance appraisal, but its merits lend itself to other investigatory activities such as job analysis for the purpose of job evaluation. In this latter context, the idea is to highlight the critical aspects of a job which are crucial to its successful performance. It can usefully be applied to multi-task jobs as a means for establishing priorities between job elements. The diary method is a self-reporting analysis of the activities engaged in over a period and the amount of time spent on all of them, recorded in the form of a diary. It can become tedious and onerous for the job incumbent, and is probably the method most open to abuse and faking.
The process of job analysis is much more difficult than might appear at first sight. The conventional techniques listed all have limitations (Prasad, 1997). For managerial jobs, the matter can become very complicated, and it may well be necessary to construct the analysis in terms of the criteria by which the job is to be evaluated, for example, problem-solving, accountability, and know-how. Job analysis can be misleading; therefore, the totality of a job is greater than the sum of its individual parts. For the purpose of job evaluation, the evidence from job analysis should be treated with caution.
Job Evaluation
Kay .G (2005) says that the job evaluation acts as a tool to provide the means of assessing jobs to make an equal value decision. A major purpose for job analysis is to obtain information for a job evaluation project that may be organisation-wide or simply consist of an individual employee's request for his or her job to be re-evaluated. Also, the organisation may want to implement a new pay system such as one with pay incentives. In pay system studies, the job analysis planning must include such items as the compensable factors used in the job evaluation.( Lucia, A.D. & Lepsinger, R.1999) For example, the Equal Pay Act states male and female employees must be paid the same for jobs requiring equal skill, effort, responsibility, and performed under similar working conditions. If these compensable factors are used in the job evaluation, then the job analysis planning process must include them.
Evaluation plans used to translate job duties into relative job worth may take different forms (James, 1991). Essentially, however, the principal measuring techniques for determining relative job worth differ from one another in three ways. First, what is measured - the whole job or identifiable elements of the job. Second, whether or not point values are assigned to establish quantitative measures of job value. Third, how jobs are measured - against other jobs, or against a pre-described yard-stick. Application of these techniques can result in four basically different types of job evaluation plans. These are, and have been for many years, the ranking system, the classification system, point evaluation plans, and factor comparison plans. Combinations of these systems can also be used.
The Ranking System
The most widely used method of job evaluation is the ranking system. Under this plan, a job is ranked against other jobs, without assigning point values. Evaluators simply compare two jobs and judge which is more difficult. Once this determination has been made, a third job is compared with the first two and similar decision made. The process is repeated until all jobs have been ranked, from the most difficult to the least difficult. The greatest advantage of the ranking system is its simplicity. The evaluation process is quick and inexpensive. Also, the ranking system uses a job against-job comparison, which is the most accurate method of evaluation, because it is far easier to judge which of two jobs is more difficult than it is to judge the absolute difficulty of either.
On the other hand, the system does little to guide the judgment of evaluators. There is a tendency to judge each job on the basis of its dominant characteristics, which can result in inconsistencies. In addition, it is extremely difficult to explain or justify the results of ranking to employees or managers, because there is no record of the judgements of evaluators. Finally, the ranking system can indicate only that one job is more difficult than another, not how much more difficult it is.
The Point System
Under the point evaluation system, various factors which measure a job are selected and defined. A separate yard-stick for different degrees of each factor is prepared. A job is then rated against every yard-stick. In essence, this is the same process as the classification system except that the job is evaluated on a separate scale for each factor. In addition, each degree of each factor has point weightings. Point evaluation systems provide a written record of judgements made. In addition, the degrees in each factor provide a guideline for judgements. Because points are assigned for each factor, each job can be given a total numeric point value, which provides a measure of how much more difficult one job is than another. The main problems of the point evaluation system are the difficulty of selecting relevant factors, of defining degrees for each factor and assigning appropriate point values. In addition, there is the problem of determining the correct number of degrees. Ideally, just enough degrees are established to identify minimum measurable differences in each factor. Finally, the various degree definitions must be written so as to serve as guides that are both useful and meaningful in terms of the jobs being measured in each specific company.
Factor Comparison
The final basic approach used in traditional job evaluation is the factor comparison system. In this system, factors must also be identified, as under the point system. Within each factor, a ranking system rather than a classification system is used. That is, for each factor, the evaluator ranks all jobs from highest to lowest. Various degrees result, but they are not defined or described. Points are assigned to each of these degrees. Factor comparison has two basic advantages. First, it uses the job-by-job comparison technique. Second, it does not involve the semantic problems encountered in defining factor degrees. However, because of the lack of definitions, it is always difficult to explain the results of factor comparison evaluations to employees or supervisors.
Combination Systems
In practice, most companies use combination plans. The most typical approach is to use a combination factor comparison and point system (Hartley D.E, 2004). In this way, the advantages of each system are obtained, and the difficulties of each are neutralised. In the combination system, there are five steps involved. Firstly, factors are selected and defined. These are usually the five basic factors of responsibility, authority, knowledge, skill, and working conditions. Secondly, benchmark jobs are selected and priced if they can be priced in the market, and all benchmark jobs are ranked under each factor. This includes both those which were priced in the market-place and those which were not. Ranking of market-priced jobs, however, must reflect market pay relationships. Ranking of other jobs is done primarily by comparison with jobs that have been priced. Thirdly, points are assigned to each degree of each factor on the basis of a standard system. The relative maximum weight of each factor is a function of the number of degrees established in the ranking process. Fourthly, each degree is defined. This is done in terms of the company jobs that have been ranked in each degree. Finally, all other jobs are evaluated, by comparison against degree definitions and on a job-against-job ranking system, particularly using benchmark jobs priced under each factor.
Edmund .H (1996) says that new methods of pay are introduced by many companies. Each form or element of pay serves a different objective for the company. Each has evolved over time to deal with specific company needs. Each element of compensation also tends to meet different employee aspirations or objectives. The elements of compensation may be categorised in six ways. There are premium payments, bonus payments, long-term income payments, pay for time not worked, benefits, and estate building plans. Each of these elements is more applicable to some groups of employees than to others. For instance, overtime is applied only to operations persons. Long-term income plans are typically restricted to higher-paid persons. There are also non-financial rewards, which are difficult to categorise. Basically, some company characteristics represent a form of remuneration to employees. The work done and the work environment can have value, even though no monetary payments are involved.(Risher .H, 1979) Other characteristics whose value cannot readily be expressed in terms of dollars but which to the employee represent income value or remuneration include titles and various perquisites.
While each company's compensation programme is necessarily different, there is a general approach to compensation which is applicable, in general, to almost every organisation (Sibson, 1981). This basic approach involves identifying needs, determining objectives, developing programmes, implementing the programmes, and at some time making revisions to the programme. This is simply a general business approach to management.
A practical business approach to compensation administration starts by identifying needs.
Translating needs to objectives requires assessing the importance of the problem of opportunity, how and when it may affect the business, the probability of success in resolving the problem or exploiting the opportunity, and the costs involved. The process sometimes relies heavily on precedents, intuition, and judgement.
Once attainable objectives have been identified, they must be further translated to specific techniques, procedures, and schedules. The specific techniques and procedures need not necessarily be worked on in detail at this stage, but they should be identified in a general manner. Also, a timetable must be established. Cost estimates for the work and elapsed time necessary to accomplish objectives must be determined. Milestones against which progress can be measured should be established.
Implementation means putting programmes into operation and establishing the various procedures and reviews that are a necessary part of any programme. Implementation, in effect, puts flesh on the bones of a designed programme. The very specifics of administrative practices and decisions become part of the substance of the programme.
As circumstances of the firm change, there comes a time for most programmes when they must be revised. Actually, the decisions and cases which occur cumulatively cause sufficient changes in most programmes. A major revision may be necessary because of a change in operations, regulation, or management. The company's needs may change, or there may be changes in priorities. If the question changes, then a revision is necessary to have a programme that reflects the appropriate answer.
To conduct job analysis effectively, managers have the obligation to keep all the job information up to date. It is vital that they report changes in the organisation, job assignments, and methods of work to ensure that classifications are kept current. Even when staff specialists evaluate jobs, line managers still have the basic responsibility of reviewing both the job analysis and the results of job evaluation. This review carries with it the authority to approve or appeal. Line managers have the basic responsibility for making pay decisions. Decisions must be made within the framework of policies, practices, techniques, and controls. Clearly, the individual supervisor is involved in interpreting compensation policies and applying them to many individual situations. The supervisor also has the job of gaining employee acceptance of the company evaluation and compensation programme. The supervisor is not likely to gain that acceptance unless employees understand basic policies and practices, and unless they perceive that the application of those policies and practices in individual situations is equitable and reasonable. Information, knowledge, programmes, and practices must be continuously reviewed and re-thought. Management of job analysis, job evaluation and compensation administration, like many other fields, requires a never ending search for excellence.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Data Requirement
The data that is required is first an extra source of secondary data that can help how the existing literature comes to such contradictory conclusions and determine whether some of them can be ruled out on the basis that they are not adequate. Literature on the job analysis in the organization should be analyzed carefully.
The other data that is required for the analysis is the primary data, in order to test the theory which is best suitable for the job analysis is the functional theory is used to describe the job analysis process in the company.
3.2. Research Design
3.2.1 Research style
According to Saunders et al (2003), the research can be carried out using the three philosophies.
As the topic of this dissertation is highly human, based on the emotions and job performance, subjective interpretation of reality, a positivistic approach should not be the best way to address the topic of job analysis. The tasks explained in the literature review will also confirm that the there are different ways of job analysis that are based on very distinct interpretation of reality.
Since one of the research objectives is to test the validity of some prominent theories, it is also worth keeping a detached approach to see whether the mental constructs of theorists can actually apply to reality. The research style used throughout this dissertation would therefore better fit an approach based on realism.
According to the realistic approach, the world is real but people put constructions on that reality. One should approach research using multi-methods of enquiry and look for models that will explain what is measured and why different people put different constructions on reality (David, 2008).
3.2.2 Research approach
On a deeper level of analysis, research design is also governed by 2two major concepts. It can be either an inductive approach, or a deductive approach (Saunders et al, 2003)
The inductive approach is that in which the researcher would collect data and then try to build a theory from it. In this approach the results are probable but not definitive. The deductive approach is more a scientific study, where the researchers elaborate theories that they subsequently try to test using replicable materials such as the questionnaires or the interviews.
In this case, at first the author followed the inductive approach by collecting the data from the employees and the other information sources available. However, as time passed and more and more information was gathered and the better understanding of theories was acquired, the author developed his own conception of the subject, and therefore tried to put it to practice.
Overall, this dissertation, in its initial stage was based on inductive approach, which then, as ideas get clearer and clearer, turned into a deductive one: as some of the theories at hand were put aside as being too restrictive, and as a larger, more comprehensive one seemed to be found, the idea was then put it into practice in a sticking-point situation. The research that is to be adopted is one that might be seen as a mix of grounded theory and survey.
Although the initial point of this dissertation was a review of already existing theories, the main major task is to disentangle these confronting views, and therefore build a mental construct to explain why they were not comprehensive enough to grasp the complexity of job analysis which led to contradicting results. It therefore requires a 'grounded theory' approach.
The second part of the job is to test in the form of a survey the right theory, either built from scratch or chosen from a set of existing theories. This theory should be able to work in the conditions were the others failed and it could be the based on the 'survey' approach.
3.2.3 Methods of data collection
Data collection has been based on a firm analysis of secondary sources, because it was needed to detect a potential sticking point among these theories. Literature was gathered from the journals section of Staffordshire University's e-library. EBSCO, Emerald has also provided interesting articles on the job analysis.
After the right theory was thought to have been found, it was then necessary to test it, which required collecting primary data. The common factors affecting the research design and the resource constraints are:
Probably the most common method that comes to mind when one thinks about collecting data about job information is that of interviewing an employee. This is indeed a common way in which data is collected, but it is far from the only way. The best interviews are those for which the researcher has prepared by examining organization data, as well as any past descriptions of the job. A related technique would be to observe the employee performing the job. This technique is most successful for jobs that are physical in nature. The interview or observation may be totally inductive, one in which the researcher has no preconceived idea about the job, to a very structured situation in which the researcher has a clear pro-forma as to the information sought. Therefore knowledge and skills are the constraints in this method of collection of data.
While these one-on-one techniques may be the most common, it is not the only way for a researcher to obtain information directly from others. Of increasing popularity are group-based techniques. Such as group discussions are used and the groups may consist of various levels of employees such as:
Any combination of these groups may be used to gather the information regarding the job analysis in the organisation.
The advantage of using groups is to collect a large amount of information rapidly, as well as to provide help in integrating the information. However, using groups can be costly, and getting the group together is very difficult. Therefore, time and budget are the main constraints in this technique.
A more typically structured technique is that of a questionnaire. This may be used by the researcher to collect data. Preparation of a questionnaire takes both time and skill of individuals knowledgeable of both the jobs and questionnaire preparation. Questionnaires may be of a paper and pencil variety, but recently are more likely to be a computer-based program. Computer-based questionnaires are designed specifically for the organization, or a more general one used to collect information from a large number of people working in an organization.
Lastly, the organization has a variety of information that is useful for gathering information about specific jobs, particularly the job context. These may be:
By verifying all the available resources of data collection regarding the job analysis, the author has designed a sphinx-software made questionnaire with tick-boxes and either sent by e-mail, or directly handed to employees. The reason behind using of the questionnaire is that both the time and costs are saved. Careful attention has been given to make sure that the set of employees are as diverse as possible: employees working in the field of research, production, management were selected. The reason for this required variety is the result of the analysis of the existing theories and is therefore presented in the 'research findings' apart. To analyze the job analysis system followed by the organization, a sample size of 100 employees will be considered.
3.2.4. Methods for data analysis
Primary data were analyzed using the SPHINX software, used in most universities for survey analysis. It allows interactive questionnaires to be made, that respondents can directly fill in, whereupon answers are directly added to the answer database. A statistical approach was selected, first for it to be compatible with the original study to allow comparisons to be made, second because it is a token or seriousness which this subject deserves.
As far as the theoretical analysis is concerned, extra attention was paid to background details of the company, in order to better understand what went wrong and led to such discrepancies.
3.2.5. Methodological Review
The realism style that was adopted was without a doubt the good one given the main task of this dissertation, which is to draw laws from something which is deeply subjective (i.e job analysis)
The use of an initial inductive approach to the problem was certainly a good thing. As the first task is to identify the importance of job analysis. The employee's feelings and ideas are very much useful in analyzing the problem and to provide the solution.
The data collection method has some flaws like some of the questionnaire items were placed wrongly and it resulted in some incoherent results and moreover the sample size was also bit low the results found to be less significant.
Because of this, no statistical relation could be detected between the job description and the job performance of the employees. In the future it would be good to have big sample around 100 to find the exact relation and result.
4. Findings:
The author has used the questionnaire to collect the information regarding the employees job specification and their actual job performance. From the questionnaire employees answered the author has analyzed the data in the following way.
Job Grade: 3B
Definition of Job purpose:
Definition of Job Duties:
Additional Responsibility Requirements:
Extent and limits of Authority:
Job Specification (Mentioned during his Interview)
Age: 40-45
Gender: Male
Education Qualification: M.Sc, PGTQM, MBA
Experience: 15-18 years in Quality assurance and sample preparation.
Physical Specification: Normal height, Normal vision
Extra Curriculum Activities: Not Mandatory
Social Specification: Team Leader
Communication: Oral & Written with good command in English
Dominance: Leadership & Authenticity
Other skills required: Giving feedbacks to subordinates and should be capable in handling all production matters.
Moreover, he should be willing to accept additional responsibilities if offered.
The author has used the sample of 100 employees from all departments of the company and gathered the above data and after analysing the data which he has received from the employees. The author has described his findings as the following:
5. Discussion
From the findings of the data collected regarding the job analysis in the company, the author has gone into the discussion of how the data is useful and how it has proved to be important in the research of his topic of job analysis.
Job analysis is a process by which jobs are subdivided into elements, such as tasks, through the application of a formalized, systematic procedure for data collection, analysis, and synthesis (McCormick, 1976). At present numerous methods are available for accomplishing job analysis (Biddle, 1977). This plethora of methods may be considered to be a fortunate state of affairs, or a dilemma. The essence of the dilemma is whether any method of job analysis is superior, relative to any other method, in its validity and usefulness (Ash & Levine, 1980).
During the literature review, the literature was all about the employee's job specification and their job performance. The data is collected mainly in this research from the questionnaire which has designed specifically for the understanding of the importance of job analysis in this organisation. The questionnaire was carefully designed to understand the exact feelings of the employee regarding his position and his performance in the company. 77% of the employees are very satisfied regarding the purpose of their job was met and other 20% are also satisfied, which says that the company has good knowledge on the employee jobs.
The data collected from the job analysis has to serve many purposes. The data which has been collected regarding the opinion of the employees on their job, nearly 80% of the employees are very satisfied with their job. It is important to know how the data will ultimately be used since that will affect, not only the data collected, but also how it should be recorded and stored(Raymond, 1974) . If the data are to be used only for selection purposes, then the data collected should be sufficient to meet that need. If it is to be used for performance evaluation, training and development, compensation, and job structuring in addition to selection, then the uses for the data will be much greater.
Quality job analysis data can and should contribute greatly to; selection and hire, performance evaluation, training and development, compensation, job design, work force projections, and work force reduction or expansion decisions (Thomas & Lopez, 1972). Nearly 74% of the employees are very satisfied with the job description they received and the actual they are performing. There should be an audit trail from the job analysis to the decision.78% of the employees are very satisfied with the job evaluation they are being received, which is a good factor. The selection of an individual should be based on the individual's ability to do the critical tasks of the job.
This example illustrates a situation in which a number of jobs are re-organized to create one new job. One or two tasks are taken from various jobs and put together to create a new job suitable for a person.
Ten secretaries in the very busy office are so pressured with their work processing and routine correspondence work that the sending of faxes and the photocopying and collating of documents is always delayed. Work is piling up but not being done. These delays are an indication of inefficiency in the office and will result in criticisms from customers and clients, as well as managers. If nothing is done, the secretaries will face even more pressure and stress and their work performance will go down further as they struggle to keep up with the work flow.
In the research the author undertakes a work analysis exercise and identifies that the secretaries are unable to do all the tasks associated with their jobs, particularly the faxing, photocopying and collating. The author may recommend to the enterprise that it create one additional job to do all the faxing, photocopying and collating. Alternatively, depending on an assessment of the actual work volume and the identification of peak periods, the placement officer might suggest one full-time post and one or two part-time posts.
In any organisation there are two different types of jobs: the newly created job and the job with a history (John, 1969). The two types of jobs call for slightly different methods of job analysis. The newly created job is different from the established job in that it has no history. It requires speculation, albeit informed speculation. There is no incumbent from whom to gather data. The job analysis of the newly created job should be conducted with the person creating the new job or the person who is to supervise the new job. In this case, the author has collected the data from the 13 inexperienced staff and 87 experienced staff by which he can analyse the feelings of the new and the old employees. The initial data collection process should be similar to that for an established position. The Uniform Guidelines makes no distinctions between new and old jobs as far as essential evidence for validity is concerned (Christopher, 1989). From the perspective of good management, new jobs should be carefully analyzed and defined so it is clear to the organization as well as applicants and employees what is expected and how the new job will interface with other jobs in the organization. Moreover, regarding the pay and performance relation also nearly 92% of the employees are very satisfied.
The results from this study indicate that the employees are mostly very much satisfied with their job evaluation, job performance and their job description. The observed between-source differences are in line with findings from the literature indicating that job incumbent's perceptions of the job differ according to their position (Wilfredo, 1988). Differences in educational status may be partially responsible for differential perceptions, especially when these perceptions are expressed in terms of a somewhat abstract and demanding questionnaire, but in this case the author has carefully chosen his sample of 47 under graduates and 53 graduates or above ones by which he maintained a good equilibrium in the data collection. The employees with high education were also equally satisfied in their job with the employees of less education because they were positioned according to their ability of knowledge and skills. Moreover, the managers perspective covers the whole department, the service process from beginning to end, the organizational objectives and the company's training issues and appraisal criteria (Perlman. K, 1980). They are expected to have a global view of the job under consideration and, because of this macro-perspective, the managers may miss some of the day-to-day, more subtle job elements, which have been captured by the incumbents.
5.1 JOB DESCRIPTIONS
Regardless of who collects job information and how they do it, the end product of job analysis is a standardized job description. A job description describes the job as it is being performed. In a sense, a job description is a snapshot of the job as of the time it was analyzed (Dale, 1974). Ideally they are written so that any reader, whether familiar with the job or not, can “see” what the worker does, how, and why. What the worker does describes the physical, mental, and interactional activities of the job. How deals with the methods, procedures, tools, and information sources used to carry out the tasks. Why refers to the objective of the work activities; this should be included in the job summary and in each task description.
Unfortunately, many words have more than one meaning. Perhaps the easiest way to promote accurate job-description writing is to select only active verbs that permit the reader to see someone actually doing something. In this case, 74% employees are very satisfied regarding the job specification they have received to what they are now performing in their job.
For enterprises, job analysis has many general uses including:
More specifically, the role of the manager is to use job analysis as a tool to assist employers to identify jobs that people can do, thereby assisting more people to find suitable jobs., In order to do this you need to have a broad understanding of its uses and benefits and how it can be used to the advantage of people .
Job analysis is a tool that can provide enterprises with the means to deal with:
Job analysis makes it easier for enterprises to manage their resources (personal) function in a systematic and structured way. As such, it also makes it easier to engage workers on grounds of their potential contributions to the business, rather than due to a legal obligation or on grounds of charity or conscience.
Job analysis assists individual people by:
It is readily apparent that the results of this survey using the questionnaire such as this are not a substitute for careful experimentation. To resolve definitively the issue of efficiency of job analysis methods, a programmatic series of appropriately designed studies will be necessary(Sidney, 1987).Thus this study may be considered only as an interim stage in the continuing effort to accumulate comparative data on job analysis methods.
Unfortunately, opinions about job analysis gathered in this survey are not attributable directly to particular features of a job analysis method. A more effective “hybrid” or combination method thus cannot be determined by extracting the best features from each of the methods evaluated in this study.
Still another problem with the study is that of sampling error, which may curtail the generalizability of these data. Because there was no well-defined population of employees from whom to sample, the purposive sampling strategy may have yielded a non representative group of respondents.
The extent of this problem cannot be assessed adequately, although the opportunity to participate in the survey was widely spread among the employees. Moreover, respondents were widely dispersed geographically, affiliated with a variety of organizational needs, and engaged in a diversity of human resource activities.
Although a number of recognized authorities are included in our sample, none of the developers of the job analysis methods considered in this survey were invited to serve as respondents. Therefore, there are grounds for assuming that the ratings were not overly affected by pre existing biases due to vested interest in a particular method.
On the other hand, the experienced employees of nearly 87 who participated in the survey apparently attended to their rating tasks quite well. That is, their evaluative responses evidently were based on the descriptions of the job analysis methods that were provided as part of the survey package, in addition to their previous experiences of doing jobs. This conclusion is based on the relatively low impact on ratings of the variables sex of respondent, familiarity with a job analysis method, and organizational affiliation.
This study found that job analysis methods are perceived as differentially effective for various human resource purposes, and as differentially practical. Although the amount of variance explained in the ratings by job analysis methods is not large, neither is it inconsequential. Nevertheless, these data should not replace a manager's, consultants, or a researcher's judgment about which methods to use. They will be closely familiar with the vagaries of particular situations. However, their choices may be aided considerably by having at their disposal the pooled judgments of a large number of employees. When multiple job analysis methods are used, a strategy that is endorsed overwhelmingly by the respondents, the increased costs of the job analysis are more likely to pay off in superior outcomes with the aid of these results.
The findings here may serve as a source of hypotheses to be tested in future controlled, experimental studies. For example, it could be hypothesized that the primary difference in the relative efficacy of job analysis methods is due to the type of job descriptor or unit of analysis (e.g., tasks, activities, threshold traits) they employ. It also might be surmised that the data gathering approach used within a method (e.g., structured questionnaire, brainstorming meetings) is of secondary importance, although a significant factor nonetheless. Future research on these variables may lead to the synthesis of that “ideal” method, which is beyond reach at the present stage of knowledge. Perhaps that ideal method will overcome some of the limitations of current job analysis technology; namely, its relative in ability to deal with the job as it should be, rather than how it is now, and with changes in the job over time.
Furthermore, the results provide some guidance to the developers of those job analysis methods included in this study so that they may be modified to serve user needs more adequately. In addition, the path to comparing combinations of methods has been cleared to some degree, so that future research on suitable combinations of methods may be facilitated. No other studies are known to have addressed the efficacy of combinations of methods.
There is no one best method for conducting job analysis in an organisation. Conflicting information regarding advantages and disadvantages was presented. The most appropriate method(s) are selected and how they are used, is based upon a variety of factors such as organisational philosophy, needs, and goals: money, personnel, and time considerations; type of job being analysed.
The HRD specialist should be actively involved in job analysis, not just a recipient job data. Some basic reasons were identified. Job analysis is not a one-time activity, because organizations are dynamic entities. Personnel come and go, objectives change, people modify jobs, products change, new equipment is introduced, and other factors necessitate a continual monitoring of job behaviour.
Job analysis is a complex process which requires a team approach. While the HRD specialist may not always be the coordinator or conductor of job analysis, he/she is a needed team member. In addition, the continual involvement in job analysis, in understanding the jobs in the organisation and how they are changing, could provide HRD specialists opportunities to plan for education and development activities. Training, education, and development is necessary (Nadler, 1971) in dealing with employee job performance in the present and as organisation change. In this company, the author has observed that the job analysis is an ongoing process regularly.
Once the initial list of tasks has been compiled, the list should be sent to all of the incumbents in the job. It provides an opportunity for all employees to have input into the process. Frequently, additional information will come to light about the job. Jobs are dynamic and ever-changing. Different patterns of how to do the work and different activities may be discovered. Subtle differences in activities may surface. At this point in the process, it is better to err in the direction of including more information rather than less.
One question which needs to be addressed is: What level of detail is necessary for a good job analysis? For most jobs, “drive a car” or “operate an automobile” should be sufficient. It is not necessary to describe step by step the activities required to drive a car, i.e., open the door, insert the key, etc. There is an element of reasonable judgment here. A good rule of thumb is, if the employee understands the statement, then it is most likely at a sufficient level of detail. More complicated and less well known activities may require a greater delineation of details. This is especially true if these activities are central to the job and likely to be part of future performance assessment. If an employee is required to operate a variety of machines, it is well to identify each piece of machinery separately rather than a broad statement such as “operate equipment.”
In the overall discussion part the author has analysed the data he has collected regarding the job analysis and has also explained regarding some of the limitations of using this method of collection of data.
5.2 Pharmaceutical industry and its environment
Dr. Reddy's was founded in 1984 by Dr. K. ANJI REDDY, which has now become India's second biggest pharmaceutical company. Dr. Anji Reddy had worked in the publicly-owned Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. Reddy's manufactures and markets a wide range of pharmaceuticals in India and overseas. The company has more than 190 medications ready for patients to take, 60 active pharmaceutical ingredients for drug manufacture, diagnostic kits, critical care and biotechnology products.
Dr. Reddy's began as a supplier to Indian drug manufacturers, but it soon started exporting to other less-regulated markets that had the advantage of not having to spend time and money on a manufacturing plant that that would gain approval from a drug licensing body such as the US's Food and Drug Administration. Much of Reddy's early success came in those unregulated markets, where process patents - not product patents - are recognized. With that money in the bank, the company could reverse-engineer patented drugs from more developed countries and sell them royalty-free in India and Russia.
The Indian Pharmaceutical Industry today is in the front rank of India's science-based industries with wide ranging capabilities in the complex field of drug manufacture and technology. A highly organized sector, the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry is estimated to be worth $ 4.5 billion, growing at about 8 to 9 percent annually. It ranks very high in the third world, in terms of technology, quality and range of medicines manufactured. From simple headache pills to sophisticated antibiotics and complex cardiac compounds, almost every type of medicine is now made available in all places indigenously.
Playing a key role in promoting and sustaining development in the vital field of medicines, Indian pharma Industry boasts of quality producers and many units approved by regulatory authorities in USA and UK. International companies associated with this sector have stimulated, assisted and spearheaded this dynamic development in the past 53 years and helped to put India on the pharmaceutical map of the world.
The Indian Pharmaceutical sector is highly fragmented with more than 20,000 registered units. It has expanded drastically in the last two decades. The leading 250 pharmaceutical companies control 70% of the market with market leader holding nearly 7% of the market share. It is an extremely fragmented market with severe price competition.
The pharmaceutical industry in India meets around 70% of the country's demand for bulk drugs, drug intermediates, pharmaceutical formulations, chemicals, tablets, capsules, orals and injectables. There are about 250 large units and about 8000 Small Scale Units, which form the core of the pharmaceutical industry in India (including 5 Central Public Sector Units). These units produce the complete range of pharmaceutical formulations, i.e., medicines ready for consumption by patients and about 350 bulk drugs, i.e., chemicals having therapeutic value and used for production of pharmaceutical formulations.
Following the de-licensing of the pharmaceutical industry, industrial licensing for most of the drugs and pharmaceutical products has been done away with. Manufacturers are free to produce any drug duly approved by the Drug Control Authority. Technologically strong and totally self-reliant, the pharmaceutical industry in India has low costs of production, low R&D costs, innovative scientific manpower, strength of national laboratories and an increasing balance of trade. The Pharmaceutical Industry, with its rich scientific talents and research capabilities, supported by Intellectual Property Protection regime is well set to take on the international market.
6. RECOMMENDATIONS:
7. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
8. References:
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