Introduction
Today computers play an essential role in industry, commerce, government, research, education, medicine, communication systems, entertainment and many other areas of our society. Professionals who contribute to the design, development, analysis, specification, certification, maintenance and evaluation of the many different applications of computer systems have a significant impact on society, making thereby beneficial contributions to society, but also, possibly, some less positive. To ensure that their efforts will be used for the general good, computing professionals must commit themselves to making computing a beneficial and respected profession, promoting an ethical approach to their professional practice. Computing Curricula 2001, The Joint Task Force on Computing Curricula of IEEE Computer Society and Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), emphasizes strongly professional issues, making it a part of a core curriculum for computing.
In Sweden, only certain colleges and universities offer their students an opportunity to study professional ethics. The Royal Institute of Technology, KTH for example has courses in Engineering Ethics and we at Mälardalen University have developed a course in Professional Ethics in Science and Engineering, presented for the first time in 2003.
What is Computer Ethic
Computer ethics might be defined as the analysis of the nature and social impact of computer technology and the corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology. (Moor, 1985)
This sense of the word "ethics" is linked directly to the original sense of the Greek word ethos, which meant "customs", as did mores the Latin root of "morals". Ethical problems arise most often when there are differences of judgment or expectations about what constitutes the true state of affairs or a proper course of action. The engineer may be faced with contrary opinions from within the firm, from the client, from other firms within the industry, or from government. An individual makes ethical decisions, in his/her capacity as a member of different groups. In order to make ethical decisions, an engineer interacts in many directions and within many different contexts, each of which can show the actual situation in a different light. For example, solving the problem on the relation individual - colleagues - management could lead to certain choices, which e.g. do not necessarily coincide with the views of his/her own family or friends, or the clients, authorities, societies or other industries. When faced with a moral/ethical dilemma, a professional must be able to make rational and well-motivated decisions. Courses in Ethics can help professionals by offering tools and methods helpful in such situations.
Uniqueness Debate in Computer Ethics
The basic principles of ethics are constant, no matter in which area they might be applied. The principles of medical ethics, legal ethics, and computer ethics are not different from one another. However, new circumstances related to the computer do raise new questions about how these principles are to be applied, introducing the concept of policy vacuums designated thus by Moor, see Moor 1985, Johnson 2003, Tavani 2002 and references therein, and Barger, 2001. A general comment can be made regarding the uniqueness debate. Similarity is always relative. Two things that are similar are always similar in certain respects. Uniqueness is a matter of focus and context. Looking at the set of all possible ethical problems, different patterns can be recognized permitting their grouping into medical ethics, political ethics, environmental ethics, business ethics etc. The criteria for grouping problems within certain fields are several. One is the importance of the ethical problem. The other is its specific and unique character. Tavani 2002 concludes his article on the uniqueness debate stating that the computer ethics issues are both philosophically interesting and deserving of our attention, no matter whether those issues are unique ethical issues.
In what follows I will argue that the social importance of the computer as a revolutionary machine together with its specific features do give rise to new ethical problems and legitimize the introduction of the field of Computer Ethics. Following is the list of the unique features of computing technology.
Logical Malleability.
Computers are logically malleable in that they can be shaped and moulded to perform any activity that can be characterized in terms of inputs, outputs, and connecting logical operations (Moor, 1985). Computers are therefore used as tools for representation, modelling and simulation and they are a materialization of our conceptual knowledge of the world. For our epoch they are The Revolutionary Machine in the same sense as the steam engine was for the industrial era. The ethical consequences of the fact that the computer is an artefact defining our present day culture are many. Computing has become a complex and growing part of society - with profound and broad social implications. To be able to understand the problems within the field a specific technical expertise is necessary. One can ask the following question in order to elucidate the uniqueness issue: Why not car ethics? Even though the automobile is almost as ubiquitous as a computer, the ethical questions (safety and environmental impact) related to cars are conceptually relatively simple and already taken into consideration by other ethical disciplines. The complexity of ethical issues related to computers, together with their prominent cultural role and the fact that an understanding of the technical details of the problems involved is often necessary to be able to see its ethical implications clearly provides a foundation for Computer Ethics as a specific applied ethics discipline.
Speed.
An example in which speed can have ethical consequences is when, after reading some posting or e-mail, a person responds with an e-mail in which she/he uses an immoderate tone, a tone which would not have been used if she/he had taken the time to write a traditional letter or had contacted the recipient in person or by phone. Speed and the simplicity of handling large amounts of data are connected with some other ethical problems such as privacy and security.
Storage of huge amounts of data.
Once recorded and shared with other computers, information about people (accurate or inaccurate) can invade privacy in a way never before possible in history. The ease with which data saved in a computer can be manipulated (as if they are greased (Moor 2004)) makes the use of surveillance, monitoring and spyware methods really easy from the technical point of view.
Identity.
It is possible with a computer to steal another person's identity, forge a message, or send a message anonymously. Present day vague identities make possible "spam", for example. There is an ongoing ethical debate about the pros and contras of anonymity, and under which condition it can be an acceptable way of communication.
Internationality.
Computer communication does not stop at national boundaries. What is considered legal in one country might be forbidden in another country.
Copying.
Images, text and sound can be copied with a computer in a few seconds by a few clicks and can easily be used without attribution to the author or out of context. This causes the ongoing discussion about intellectual property.
Openness and availability.
Computer networks make it easy for the user to come across a virtually unlimited amount of diverse information, even in cases of e.g. pornography, gambling, or sites with any kind of propaganda or superstition, which might be difficult to handle for certain groups of users. Cyber stalking is an example mentioned in Tavani 2002. Even spam and other unwanted messaging is a consequence of the openness of the system and availability of the data (e-mail addresses for example).
Power mediation.
Computing is still a well-educated-younger-male-dominated field. This domination can be seen as an inequity. The computer is increasingly becoming such a basic tool that it is wrong for certain social groups not to have equal access to it, especially in the government era. The related ethical questions are the power distribution, equal opportunities, equity, fairness and justice.
Privacy.
Computers make very suitable tools for among others surveillance, collecting data about people and relating data about different people in order to disclose their habits and patterns of behaviour. Those methods can be used to enhance public security and safety, but also to invade the privacy of the citizen. The concerns about the privacy protection for citizens result in an intentional design for democracy, which is a project to incorporate privacy protection into technology design and practices.
Conclusions
The growing importance of computers in modern society makes Computer Ethics essential both when it comes to the issues related to the profession such as safety, security, privacy, environmental impact, quality, and similar and also in the everyday use of computers which gives rise to numerous ethical dilemmas. The aim of ethics courses in science and engineering is to increase the ability of future professionals to recognize and solve ethical problems, to accept different ethical perspectives and ethical pluralism. It develops the skill and habit of thinking rationally about ethical issues and in that way prepares students for the challenges of their profession. Experiences from the Professional Ethics in Science and Engineering Course at Mälardalen University are very encouraging. Our conclusion is that it is both necessary and possible to make Computer Ethics an integral part of computing curricula, which is the natural way to ensure its integration in the culture of the profession.
Why study professional ethics?
To deal with the true nature of computing as a service to other human beings. (Gotterbarn 1991)
To convey a sense of professional responsibility not covered in other courses.
To sensitize students to computer ethics issues.
To provide tools and methods for analyzing cases.
To provide practice in applying the tools and methods to actual or realistic cases.
To develop in the student good judgment and helpful intuitions - ethical autonomy.
