Different types of people in the Middle Ages were treated as outsiders and isolated from medieval Christian society. The term 'outsider' means someone who is excluded purposefully from society and treated differently. Religious groups were also treated as outsiders, due to their culture. One of these religious groups was the Muslims. Countries where Muslims were treated as outsiders were Spain and Italy. The treatment of Muslims by the royalty, Ferdinand and Isabella, is also worth discussion due to their attempt to treat them as outsiders during the Spanish Inquisition. There were many ways in which they were treated as outsiders. For example, they were forced to pay taxes, laws excluded them from social life and there was violence towards them. The Colony at Lucera also makes for interesting discussion, because although Muslims were separated from Italian society, they were still well-respected within Lucera, compared to how they would have been if they remained in Sicily. Another part of Italy which will be discussed is Sicily, where slavery was used to treat Muslims as outsiders. The further treatment of outsiders is evident in the Crusades, which increased hatred towards Muslims, due to Muslim presence in The Holy Land, so it is crucial. Here the role of the papacy and the violence of the Muslims under the Franks will be discussed. The papacy believed in establishing Christianity as the most revered religions and thus other religions were discriminated against. As a result, certain decrees were passed against Muslims. The Frankish example is important because, it shows the extreme violence used towards Muslims. Therefore, Muslims were persecuted in within Medieval Christianity in a variety of ways, which was aimed at degrading them.
One of the countries which treated Muslims as outsiders was Spain. The historian Mark Meyerson states that under the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Spanish Inquisition forced the expulsion and/or conversion of Spain's Muslims from Spanish society. [1] In order to understand ways in which Muslims were treated as outsiders in Spain, we must firstly understand why they were treated as such in order to get a larger view of events. It seems that Ferdinand and Isabella wished to exclude the enemies of the Christian faith. Two main areas of thought have been identified. One interpretation is that they were following the legacy of the crusades. Another idea is that they wished to increase political authority. There is possibly truth in both interpretations because by increasing political authority, the monarchy would be able to showcase the power of Christianity against other religions and therefore maintain control over a broad section of the population. Ferdinand himself angrily described the 'terrible treatment of Christians by the Muslims in the past' as one reason for his treatment of the Muslims. [2] This source is valid, because we get a first-hand perspective from the leader who passed decrees against Muslims and Ferdinand's anger is further evident when we attempt to analyse Meyerson view of expulsion and conversion. Following the massacre by Muslims of Christians in 1491 in Eastern Spain, Ferdinand began his tirade upon Muslim culture in order to establish his authority upon another religion. For example, in 1491 in Mallorca, ten Muslims were forcibly baptized. [3] Also, due to Muslims infiltration into Valencia, Ferdinand increased control of the roads into Valencia, which suggests that Muslims were unwelcome. [4]
Moreover, any Muslims who were captured were to be heavily punished by guards and excluded. Ferdinand also violated the Alhambra treaty, which allowed Muslims their freedom. [5] This meant that Muslims could be forcibly converted, or expelled. He also built a Christian shrine in the Mosque in Cordoba and destroyed thousands of Arabic manuscripts in Granada. Ferdinand and Isabella wrote to a Christian priest, Martin Garcia about these forced expulsions and conversions, 'we instruct you, as you know Arabic, to instruct the converts about the ways of our faith in Granada. The Muslims must be converted to establish our faith as the best amongst others.' [6] This last sentence highlights the wider issue of conversion to Christianity to establish political authority. Many priests were made to talk to Muslims converts about Christianity. Thus, Meyerson's view of expulsion and conversion were two valid ways in which Muslims were treated as outsiders in Spain.
Another example of how Muslims were treated as outsiders in Spain is the paying of the taxes. Meyerson points out that Ferdinand regularly referred to the Muslim population as 'our coffers' and 'servants of our chamber' alluding to the fact that he believed that he could force Muslims to pay taxes, at his will. [7] One of these taxes was the besant tax. The besant was a payment made by the Muslim household to the state. Each Muslim household had to pay 3s 4d yearly, whilst wealthy Muslims households would pay more. [8] They had to pay regular taxes, interest payments and therefore, were forced to borrow money. One Muslim in Xativa, Eastern Spain, describes how the Besant showed the Muslims 'true inferiority.' [9] Indeed, this suggests that the taxes showed how Muslims were treated as outsiders, because Xativa paid the largest amount of Besant tax: ten thousand sous. [10] This placed a financial burden on the family and many were left homeless. Also, as this is a first-hand description from a Muslim who was treated as an outsider under the Spanish Inquisition, we can take his view to be valid. Another tax which was used was the Maridatge, used to pay the expenses of the weddings of the King's children. This tax was burdensome. For example, in Jatvia, there was a total of 4,000s, paid by Muslims. Thus, paying taxes was one way in which Muslims were treated as outsiders.
Another country where Muslims were treated as outsiders was Italy. Two case studies of interesting discussion are of the land of Lucera and Sicily. Lucera is a unique example in the discussion of outsiders, because although Muslims were transported to Lucera, they were respected and largely able to do as they pleased, as shall be discussed later. The historian Julie Ann Taylor has described how King Frederik II resettled the Muslim population of Sicily to Lucera in 1220. [11] Once again, it is important to understand the motives of the King, before we can understand the ways in which they were treated as outsiders. The main reason of his treatment of Muslims in both areas was due to attempts to impose greater stricter controls of authority over the Muslims, who had revolted against Frederik II's authority. For example, there had been a majority Saracen rebels who had revolted in Sicily. It is estimated that there were between 2,000 to 5,000 rebels who were transported to Lucera. [12] This large transportation of Muslims to Lucera, an isolated place in Southern Italy, shows that they were treated as outsiders.
Similar to Spain, taxation was a way in which Muslims were treated as outsiders in Lucera. Frederik offered a thousand head of cattle to the Luceran Muslims to tie them to land, 'as was the case in the time of King William.' [13] Here, we get an idea of one of Frederick's main ideas: Lucera as a tax farm. The Subventio Generalis, a primary tax, was a tax which was imposed on the Muslim population at Lucera. [14] In the Cudera records, which were the records of the tax collectors, Lucera had the highest incoming rate of taxes: 495 gold ounces altogether in 1294 was recorded. [15] In contrast in the region of Ascoli, the highest amount of tax paid was only 115 gold ounces, in 1294. [16] Thus, taxing Muslims at a higher rate shows that they were treated as outsiders. This suggests that Taylor's view is valid, as taxation and resettlement was a way in which Muslims were treated as outsiders within Italy.
Another way in which Muslims were treated as outsiders in Lucera was with regards to how much land they could use. This is important, because Christians had the right to own more land within the neighbouring areas compared to those at Lucera, showing their further treatment of outsiders. The historian James Powell believes that a specific example which is worth discussion due to its clear treatment of Muslims as outsiders by, not only the state, but the population, occurred in 1292. The Bishop of Lucera complained to the king that the Muslims were cultivating areas of land, without his permission. [17] The Bishop claimed that they were 'vagabonds' and 'enemies of the Christian faith.' [18] The use of the term 'vagabond' and 'enemies', highlights the importance of name-calling in treating Muslims as outsiders. Following this, Muslims had to pay taxes. However, the Christian population was dissatisfied with this punishment. Therefore, the Christian population did not permit Muslims to cultivate land on the territories adjacent to the city. This example is important in showing the treatment of Muslims as outsiders by a wide Christian population, who showed dislike towards Muslims.
However, the historian Alex Metcalfe suggests that the Muslims were still treated fairly reasonably. [19] For example, the professions of the Muslims ranged from shepherds, butchers, tailors to millers, bakers and farmers. Moreover, the Arabic language was maintained and their religious customs continued to flourish within Lucera. Although Metcalfe's view is valid, sustaining a Muslim majority within Lucera would have been easier, as they were isolated from Christian society. Thus, although Muslims were respected within the Luceran community, they were still separate from Christian society, and therefore outsiders of the Christian community.
Another area of Italy where Muslims were treated as outsiders was Sicily. Sicily is an important example, when discussing the treatment of Muslims as outsiders, as it was a thriving trading island where Muslims were treated as slave labourers for enhancement in trade and commerce during the fourteenth century. The historian Gary Loud suggests that Sicily was a place where Muslims were treated as slaves. [20] Catalan traders brought Spanish Muslims with them to Sicily to settle them there to work as slaves, in order to increase productivity. [21] A traveller, Ibn-Jubayr, describes treatment of Muslims in Sicily by Christians, 'the city was crammed with worshippers of crosses….no Muslims have settled….. The Muslims fear for their labour and pray to be free.' [22] Jubayr is talking at a time when Mosque conversions were occuring in Sicily into churches and there was a rise of Muslim slave labour. Therefore, it shows, from a Muslims perspective, that Muslims were treated as outsiders in Sicily through slave labour.
A further way in which Muslims were treated as outsiders was during the Crusades. The Crusades can be seen as a turning point in the treatment of Muslims, as many Christians felt that the Muslims had committed a heinous crime in attacking The Holy Land. The important things to discuss are the role of the papacy, who had a key role to play in declaring laws against the Muslims, as they had the power to pass legislation, and the treatment of Muslims by the Franks. The papacy believed that the Muslims were a part of a conspiracy to degrade Christian values. The Crusades exacerbated this view. They were seen as heretics and, thus, needed to be treated as outsiders. Powell notes the determination by The Third Lateral council to segregate the Muslims from Christian society during the crusades. [23] For example, canon 22 regulated trade between Christians and Muslims. In canon 26, Muslims were forbidden to own Christian slaves. Thus, the Third Lateran Council passed laws against Muslims, thus treating them as outsiders.
The historian Maya Shatzmiller suggests that a pope who wished to regulate the relationship between Muslims and Christians was Pope Innocent III. [24] Pope Innocent III was determined to increase the power of the church and combat heresy. The Jews and Muslims bore the brunt of some of these laws. These laws were passed by the Fourth Lateran council. For example, during The Third Crusade, Innocent III regulated the dress of Muslims. [25] The main aim of this legislation was to prevent mixed marriages. During Christian Holy Week, Muslims were forbidden from appearing in public. Shatzmiller also describes the increasing menace of Christians towards the Muslims, encouraged by Pope Innocent III. [26] She claims that the violence towards Muslims was seen as 'marvellous to our eyes', by Innocent III. [27] For example, in Antioch, treatment of Muslims veered from economic encouragement to extortion. [28] Muslim shrines and worship areas were put into disrepair and damaged by Christians. However, there was a larger motive for the Pope's insistence of conversion and their treatment of Muslims. The papacy believed that these laws and actions would remove sacrilegious and pagan ideas. Therefore, during the crusades, the laws by the papacy and violence constituted to the Muslims treatment as outsiders.
Powell declares that one example of the treatment of Muslims during the Crusades which shows Muslim treatment as outsiders is the Muslims under the Franks. [29] Muslims under the Frankish were treated violently. Innocent Muslims were targeted because Franks felt the anger of Christians over Muslims for capturing Jerusalem which was held in high regard by Christians due to its link with Jesus. The Franks were encouraged by the papacy to increase their influence over Muslims. For example, Pope Urban II demanded Bernard of Sedirac, 'to help the Franks convert….the Muslim infidels to the faith (Christianity).' [30] In Jerusalem, a Frankish eyewitness describes the treatment of innocent Muslims by the Franks, 'some of the pagans were beheaded, pierced by arrows……….burned to death.' [31] The extreme violence of 'beheaded' and 'burned' shows that Muslims did not belong in Christian society, due to their legacy of ravishing Christian lands. Also, as it is from a Frankish witness, it maybe an exaggerated description of the treatment of Muslims, thus perhaps showing a personal hatred. However, similar scenes happened in places like Beirut, Bilbays and Caesarea, so it may have been a common phenomenon. Slavery and banishment was also used by the Franks. Ibn Jubayr describes how Muslim men were in 'shackles' and 'doing hard labour like slaves'. [32] This description by Jubayr shows that Muslims were treated like animals and unequal's to the Frankish community. Indeed, there were many slaves in the Frankish Levant. For example, Saladin managed to free eighty Muslims from the Franks. [33] This number reveals that, a large number of Muslims were imprisoned. Thus, Muslims were treated as outsiders by violence and slavery from the Franks.
Muslims were treated as outsiders in medieval Christian Society in many ways. Expulsion and conversion were methods used under Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain during The Spanish Inquisition. Taxes also had to be paid by Muslims. Moreover, they were treated as outsiders in Italy, specifically Lucera and Sicily. The Luceran Muslims were treated fairly, but isolated from the majority of the Italian population. In Sicily, Muslim slaves were used by the population. Finally, the papacy passed laws against Muslims during The Crusades, whilst there was also violence targeted towards the Muslims by the Franks.
