In today's world need for urbanization has increased as it offers better employment, education, health care and culture. However, urban growth can also be detrimental if it is unplanned sensu lato humanization can lead to environmental dilapidation like increasing deforestation; also, population demands surpasses the environmental capacity such as water supply, sanitation, waste disposal and its treatment and often settlements on marginal landscape (Moore et. al., 2002). Several studies show that "urban Sprawl" has affected the fresh waters adversely (Hongming, H., 2006). There are many types of water pollution like chemical pollution from industries, microbiological pollution, surface water pollution, ground water pollution, etc. Water pollution is caused by nutrient loading from various point sources as well as nonpoint sources (Table 1). Nonpoint source pollutant has multiple origins and a greater problem in terms of identifying and quantifying. In contrast a point source pollutant originates from a single identifiable source (Leon et al., 2001).
Eutrophication is one of the major concerns causing destruction of marine and freshwater ecosystem. It is rooted from two Greek words, "eutrophos" means "well-nourished", from "eu" means "good / well" and "trophic" means "food / nutrients" (Andersen et al., 2006). Eutrophic water contains high amount of plant and algal biomass as a result of high nutrient content, anoxic waters with often fewer types of plant and animal species and enhanced growth of littoral zone aquatic plants contributing to poor water quality (Ryding & Rast, 1989). Anoxic water results from respiration by algal biomass as well as other organisms as oxygen consumption occurs whole day while its production is only during daylight (Odum, 1971). Algal decomposition can also cause oxygen levels to decrease (Hajda and Novotny, 1996).
Eutrophication due to humanization or cultural eutrophication has been a major threat to the marine and freshwater ecosystems all over the world. The purpose of this project is to investigate the water quality in Buzzard's Mouth creek (51:31:14N, 0:06:15E) situated at Barking East London (Figure 1). This creek is surrounded by various businesses and there is possibility for pollutants to entre the creek (Table 2) like food & dairy processing, transportation (DHL & AM Fork Truck), construction, metal works & garage, offices and residential area. This creek also connects Barking Riverside site which was formerly used for the processing of coal. It is for this very reason that it might be possible for the water quality to be poor with presence of pollutants within the creek itself and the creek sediments from the various sources. Moreover, Buzzard's Mouth Creek has been considered for its wildlife interests and at present supports populations of water voles (Arvicola terrestris) (Wildlife Trust 2010). This species have undergone dramatic declines in the UK and are protected as a UK Biodiversity Action Species (UKBAP 2010). Barking Riverside Development project intends to develop a sustainable community consisting of 11,000 homes, schools and allied infrastructure will be developed on the site (Connop, S. 2010). This proposes the need for the restoration of the natural resources.
Dairy
Figure Buzzard's Mouth Creek (Connop, S. 2010)
Barking Riverside site
Buzzard's Mouth Creek
Business type
Business name
Possible Pollutant(s)
Residential
Residential area
Organic, Inorganic
Dairy
Medina Dairy Ltd, Ice cream company, The Capital Dairy Company, Barking and Dagenham Dairies
K, NH3, Na, Cl,
Food
Tradicia, Dagenham Bakers, Kashmir Halal Foods
Organic
Electrical components
Hi Grade, Ace wound, CVA, Brownings Electric motors
Cu, Mg,
Car parts
Parts Plaza, FP & S Ltd
Fe, Pb, Ti,
Garage (cars)
The Good Garage Scheme, Virdee
Fe, Pb, Ti,
Transport
DHL, AM Fork Truck
Cellulose
Metal works
M&S Products Ltd (Shutter manufacture), Gill Shop Fronts, Apex Fabrications (Skips)
Fe, Cu
Zn, Pb,
Construction
Render Seal Ltd
Inorganic
Printers
Precision Printing
Zn, Ti, Mn, Mg, Cd, Pb
Laboratory
Stansted Laboratories
Inorganic, Organic
Furniture
McKenzie Wells
cellulose
Cleaning
Cleaning services
Inorganic, Organic
Offices
Top Gear Claims, Living Faith Connections, Canaan v.pa
not sure
Various
Bankside Park Industrial Estate
Organic & Inorganic
Table 2 List of businesses, business description and possible pollutants (modified from Connop, S., 2010).
Residential areas have know to contribute towards freshwater pollution through intentional or unintentional waste disposal, sewage draining, leakage from car (e.g. oil, petroleum, etc), fertilizers from gardens and poisonous waste (e.g. rat poisons) contributing to organic & inorganic pollutants. Food & dairy release in the creek can contribute organic pollutants. Industrial effluents may be a major source for organic and inorganic pollutants and may be a major source. Barking Riverside Site was formerly used for the processing of coal, this may be a reason for high carbon based pollutants.
Background and Context
Give the background to your project and context of what you have done. Sections are entered using the Heading 2 paragraph style - the Heading 2 style automatically supplies the next section number.
Scope and Objectives
The aim of this project is to assess the water quality in the buzzard's mouth creek.
The main objectives through investigation of water quality lay underneath:-
Measurement of nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) levels
Measurement of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Measurement of levels of heavy metals
Evaluation of the outcome data for pollutants to compare with standard and acceptable levels
Literature review
Excessive nutrient loading for nitrogen and phosphorous have been a major factor responsible for Eutrophication (Smith et al., 1999). Phosphorous is the rate limiting nutrient for the toxic algal blooms in the form of orthophosphates (Drake & Heaney, 1987). Studies report that increase in pH levels causes release of inorganic as well as organic phosphorous through an enhanced ligand process on the soil and sediments (Istvanovics, 1998 and Gardolinski et al., 2004). Nitrogen is usually co exists in five different forms namely nitrogen gas, organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrite and nitrate. Ammonia is toxic to aquatic animals especially fish (Christopher et al., 1997). High inputs of such nutrients (N & P) into small streams, shallow or stagnant waters and creeks may show significant effect compared to large lakes and oceans (Vollenweider, 1968). Infiltration from septic tanks into freshwater increases their salinity (Salameh, 1996) and hence conductivity. Conductivity is measurement of ions which is due to dissolved salts. Dairy release may contain salts used in processing and preservation of cheese.
Temperature measurements are used mainly for the investigation of contamination of water as well as of searching of petroleum beneath the water bed (Madura et al., 2004). A rise in temperature may result from accumulation of dirt, biological and chemical pollutants on the thin water surface. Such a rise in temperature can affect uptake of nitrogen and phosphorous (Butturini and Sabater, 1998). Organic pollutants are of major concern to us while monitoring the immediate environment of the workplace, factory emissions or waste streams, etc., or the wider environment. Organic pollutants and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) are directly proportional to each other (Nijboer and Verdonschot, 2004). BOD is expected to be high if organic contaminants are introduced into the creek. Heavy metals often enter into water through industrial effluent, spillage or leakage and agricultural wastes and a problem which persist still after the industries are abandoned (Merefield, 1995). Coal processing mine latter closed down at Barking Riverside Site, metal works, transport etc may contribute to heavy metal pollutants in the creek.
Microorganisms such as bacteria are responsible for decomposing organic waste. When organic matter such as dead plants, leaves, grass clippings, manure, sewage, or even food waste is present in a water supply, the bacteria will begin the process of breaking down this waste. When this happens, much of the available dissolved oxygen is consumed by aerobic bacteria, robbing other aquatic organisms of the oxygen they need to live.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen used by microorganisms to decompose this waste. If there is a large quantity of organic waste in the water supply, there will also be a lot of bacteria present working to decompose this waste. In this case, the demand for oxygen will be high (due to all the bacteria) so the BOD level will be high. As the waste is consumed or dispersed through the water, BOD levels will begin to decline.
Nitrates and phosphates in a body of water can contribute to high BOD levels. Nitrates and phosphates are plant nutrients and can cause plant life and algae to grow quickly. When plants grow quickly, they also die quickly. This contributes to the organic waste in the water, which is then decomposed by bacteria. This results in a high BOD level. The temperature of the water can also contribute to high BOD levels. For example, warmer water usually will have a higher BOD level than colder water. As water temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis by algae and other plant life in the water also increases. When this happens, plants grow faster and also die faster. When the plants die, they fall to the bottom where they are decomposed by bacteria. The bacteria require oxygen for this process so the BOD is high at this location. Therefore, increased water temperatures will speed up bacterial decomposition and result in higher BOD levels.
When BOD levels are high, dissolved oxygen (DO) levels decrease because the oxygen that is available in the water is being consumed by the bacteria. Since less dissolved oxygen is available in the water, fish and other aquatic organisms may not survive.
Methodology
The methodology has been subdivided into different sub-sections which describes different phases and stages in the analysis. The following physical, chemical and biological parameters where investigated for the assessment of the water quality:-
Physical testing
Temperature
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Chemical testing
pH
Conductivity
Nutrients (Ammonia, Nitrates/nitrites, Phosphates)
Heavy metals (
Organic pollutants
Biological testing
Bioassay.
Pre-sampling
Pre-sampling was carried out prior going to the study site for sample collection. Different types of containers were used for different analysis. 250 ml polypropylene bottles for nutrient analysis, 250 ml of glass bottles for heavy metal analysis, 150 ml plastic jars for sediments and special 150 ml glass BOD bottles for BOD analysis. All the containers during this stage were acid washed by keeping them in a closed acid wash box containing 1 molar hydrochloric acid for 1 hour. These were then rinsed with water twice and dried. The containers for heavy metals and BOD analysis were wrapped with aluminium foil to render them protection from light. Calibrations were also carried out for probes to be used for in situ analysis during the sampling.
Sample collection
Sampling design for the analyte(s) is the first and most important step for any analytical procedure. Errors, personal or environmental, committed at this phase cannot be corrected later during the investigation (Tadeusz & Jacek, 2002). Samples were collected from different sample points on the creek making sure sites were related to the locations of different industries around it. Samples for BOD analysis were taken in triplicate making sure that no air was left in the bottle. As soon as the samples were collected they were analysed for some of the analysis to be done in situ. The in situ analysis was carried out using YSI Multi Probe 556. After analysis the samples were acid preserved by adding phosphoric acid to the polypropylene bottles meant for nutrient analysis and sulphuric acid to the glass bottles meant for the heavy metal analysis.
BOD analysis
Biological Oxygen Demand test usually needs 5 days for completion and this test was performed using YSI 5000 BOD analyzer. This test involves determination of dissolved oxygen content of water samples noted immediately with the levels of dissolved oxygen of water samples that are incubated under light protected constant condition for 5 days. To make them light protective aluminium foil were wrapped to every BOD bottles. Care was taken to ensure that samples were not exposed to the environment so for such condition triplicate samples were taken. Once the sample was tested for DO levels the sample was then not used any further. The difference in the DO levels noted at 24 hour intervals shows amount of oxygen consumed or produced in that particular sample.
NOTE: Generally, when BOD levels are high, there is a decline in DO levels. This is because the demand for oxygen by the bacteria is high and they are taking that oxygen from the oxygen dissolved in the water. If there is no organic waste present in the water, there won't be as many bacteria present to decompose it and thus the BOD will tend to be lower and the DO level will tend to be higher.
Nutrient analysis
The Flow Injection Analyzer - Lachat QuickChem 8500 was used for investigation of phosphorous, ammonia and nitrite/nitrate. The basic principle involved pumping of the sample through a peristaltic pump into a valve with simultaneous pumping of the reagent through the system. The mixture of sample and reagent then merge in the manifold (reaction module) where the sample are diluted, dialyzed, extracted, incubated and derivatized. Mixing occurs in the narrow bore tubing under laminar flow conditions. For each method, the operating parameters were optimized to address high sample throughput, high precision and high accuracy.
Nitrate was reduced to nitrite by passing the sample through copper-coated cadmium column prior to analysis. Nitrite and reduced nitrate were determined photometrically by diazotizing it with Sulphanilamide followed by coupling with N-(1-naphthyl)ethylenediamine. The resulting water soluble dye had a magenta colour whose absorbance was noted at 520 nm. Nitrite alone can be determined by removing the cadmium column.
Analysis of ammonia was based on Berthelot reaction. Ammonia was determined by reacting it with alkaline phenol followed by sodium hypochlorite to form indophenol blue. Sodium Nitroprusside was added in form of Sodium Nitroprusside colour reagent to enhance sensitivity. The absorbance is measured at 630 nm. Sometimes sample are buffered at pH 9.5 using borate buffer to decrease hydrolysis of cyanates and organic nitrogen, which then requires distilation into boric acid solution.
Phosphate was determined using Ammonium Molybdate and Antimony Potassium Tartrate as colour reagents. The orthophosphate ion (PO43-) reacts with them under acidic conditions to form a complex. This complex was reduced using Ascorbic acid Reducing solution 0.33 M which forms a blue complex that absorbs light at 880 nm. After each analysis of standards and sample the lines were flushed with Sodium Hydroxide - EDTA rinse as potassium traces are left attached to the inner walls of the pipe.
Heavy metal analysis
Heavy metals such as Aluminium (Al), Cromium (Cr), Arsenic (As), Copper (Cu), Selinium (Sb), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe) and Lead (Pb) were analysed using TwinX X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) analyzer. During pilot studies for the samples the water samples showed levels below the detection limit of the instrument so only sediments were analysed by this method. Aditionally, water and sediment samples were sent to the. The main principle involves interaction of atoms with the radiations. When materials get excited with X-ray radiation, they result in ionization of the atoms. When the supplied energy source reaches a threshold to dislodge electron to the outer shell resulting in unstable atom. This causes movement of electron from outter shell to inner shell with release of energy due to fluctuation in the binding energy. The emitted energy or radiation are of lower levels than the primary source that is the incident X-rays. This type of energy or radiation is known as fluorescent radiation.
Conclusion
Summary
Evaluation
Stand back and evaluate what you have achieved and how well you have met the objectives. Evaluate your achievements against your objectives in section Error: Reference source not found. Demonstrate that you have tackled the project in a professional manner.
(The previous paragraph demonstrates the use of automatic cross-references: The "Error: Reference source not found" is a Cross-reference to the text in a numbered item of the document, it is not literal text but a field. The number that appears here will change automatically if the number on the referred-to section is altered, for example if a chapter or section is added or deleted before it. Cross-references are entered using Word's Insert menu. Cross-references are set to update automatically when printed, but may not do so on-screen beforehand; you can update a field manually on-screen by right-clicking on it and selecting Update field from the pop-up menu.)
Future Work
There are some limitations which should be kept in mind during the investigation of the pollutants. (1) Sample collected near a possible site of origin for a pollutant gives elevated results than other samples collected far off. (2) Studies shows that rise in temperature of water levels are small (less then one degree), therefore the requirements for the instruments are also high (Madura et al., 2004). Besides external interference from sun radiation as well as electrical influence (power supply) can give a faulty assumption. (3) Effect of degassing may cause pH level to alter for example loss of CO2 (acid) may increase level of pH and loss of NH3 (base) may decrease the level. (4) In the analysis of the inorganic pollutants via FIA sample collected during different period of time round the year may give different assumptions. During May/June (summer) water level tend to decrease due to evaporation. This causes temporary rise in the analyte concentration where as during monsoon the water gets diluted reporting less concentration. (5) High activity is seen in summers where as less activity in cold temperature resulting in accumulation of phytoplants, organisms and nutrients in the creek and the sediments. (6) The AAS method can only detect the sample we want to look for it does not take into account the other pollutants left by the analysts. It also works for the concentration in the range of g/mg not suitable for trace elements.
References
Al-Kharabsheh, A., Ta'any, R., (2003). Influence of urbanization on water quality deterioration during drought periods at South Jordan (online), Journal of Arid Environments (online), 53, pp. 619-630.
Andersen, J.H., at el., (2006). Coastal eutrophication: recent developments in definitions and implications for monitoring strategies (online), Journal of Plankton Research (online), 28 (7), pp. 621-628.
Anderson, L., (1979). Simultaneous spectrophotometric determination of nitrite and nitrate by flow injection analysis, Analytica Chimica Acta, 110 (1), pp. 123-128.
Barking Riverside, (2010). General Information. Available at http://www.barkingriverside.co.uk (Accessed on 7th April 2010).
Butturini, A., and Sabater, F., (1998) Ammonium and phosphate retention in a Mediterranean stream: hydrological versus temperature control, Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55, pp. 1938-1945.
Carpenter, S.R., et al., (1998). Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications. 8, pp559-568.
Chow, C.W.K., et al., (1997). An intelligent sensor system for the determination of ammonia using flow injection analysis (online), Laboratory Automation and Information Management (online), 33, pp. 17-27.
Connop, S., (2010). Student Info. Buzzard's mouth. [Letter] (Personal communication, 13 June 2010).
Drake, J.C., Heaney, S.I., (1987). Occurrence of phosphorus and its potential remobilization in the littoral sediments of a productive English lake. Freshwater Biology, 17, pp. 513-523.
Gardolinski, P.C.F.C., and Worsfold, P.J., McKelvie, I.D., (2004). Seawater induced release and transformation of organic and inorganic phosphorus from river sediments. Water Research, 38 (3), pp. 688-692.
Go´recki, T., Namies´nik, J., (2002). Passive sampling (online), Trends in Analytical Chemistry (online), 21 (4), pp. 276-291.
Google Books, (2010). Handbook on metals in clinical and analytical chemistry. Available at http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=txPvDOg0XmcC&lpg=PP1&dq=Handbook%20on%20metals%20in%20clinical%20and%20analytical%20chemistry&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false (Accessed on 12th April 2010).
Hajda, P., and Novotny, V., (1996). Modelling impact of Urban and upstream non point sources on eutrophication of the Milwaukee river, Water. Sci. Technol. 33 (4) (1996), pp. 153-158.
Hongming, H., et al., (2007). Modelling the response of surface water quality to the urbanization in Xi'an, China, Journal of Environmental Management, 86, pp. 731-749.
Istvanovics, V., (1988). Seasonal variation of phosphorus release from the sediment of shallow Lake Balaton (Hungary). Water Research, 22 (1988), pp. 1473-1481.
Lachat Instruments, (2009). Ultra Low Flow Datapack. Available at http://www.lachatinstruments.com/download/Ultra-Low-Flow-Datapack_9-09.pdf (Accessed 22nd April 2010).
Leon, L.F., et al., (2001). Nonpoint source pollution: A distributed water quality modelling approach. Water Research, 35 (4), pp. 997-1007.
Madura, H., et al., (2004). Multispectral precise pyrometer for measurement of seawater surface temperature (online), Infrared Physics & Technology (online), 46, pp. 69-73.
Mander, U., Forsberg C., (2000). Nonpoint pollution in agricultural watersheds of endangered coastal seas. Ecological Engineering, 14 (4), pp. 317-324.
Merefield, J.R., (1995). Sediment mineralogy and the environmental impact of mining. In: Foster, I.D.L., Gurnell, A.M. and Webb, B.W., Editors, Sediment and water quality in river catchments. John Wiley and Sons, London (1995), pp. 145-190.
Moore, M., et al., (2002). Global urbanization and impact on health (online). International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health (online), 206, pp. 269-278.
Nijboer, R.C., Verdonschot, P.F.M., (2004). Variable selection for modelling effects of eutrophication on stream and river ecosystems. Ecological Modelling, 177 (1-2), pp. 17-39.
Odum, E.P., (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 574 pp.
Ryding, S.-O., Rast, W., (1998). The control of eutrohication of lakes and reservoirs. The Parathenon Publishing Group. Paris. vol-1. pp. 40.
Salameh, E., (1996). Water quality degradation in Jordan. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung and Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature, Amman, Jordan. Pp. 178.
Smith, V.H., at el., (1999). Eutrophication: impacts of excess nutrient inputs on freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems (online), Environmental Pollution (online), 100, pp. 179-196.
UKBAP, (2010). Species Action Plan: Water Vole (Arvicola terrestris). Available at http://www.ukbap.org.uk/ukplans.aspx?id=115 (Accessed 7th April 2010).
Vollenweider, R.A., (1968). Scientific fundamentals of the eutrophication of lakes and flowing waters, with particular reference to nitrogen and phosphorus as factors in eutrophication. Technical report DAS/CSI/68.27. Environmental Directorate, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Paris, 154 pp.
Wildlife trusts, (2010). Know your voles. Available at http://www.wildlifetrusts.org/index.php?section=environment:water:knowyourvole (Accessed 7th April 2010).
http://www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/risk/eco/btag/sbv/fw/screenbench.htm
