Aside from taking power into consideration, it is also very significant to discuss ideology on this research. When doing a study with regards to CDA and CL, both concepts, power and ideology, are very critical factors. Despite the different definitions which have been laid out in an attempt to provide a description of ideology, there has been a wide consensus with regards to its importance. Overtime, the primary aims of the critical analysis of language and discourse has been said to be "isolating ideology in discourse" and showing "how ideology and ideological processes are manifested as systems of linguistic characteristics and processes" (Trew 1979: 155). With this, it is safe to assume that ideology is central to such since it is seen to have critical importance on being able to establish and maintain unequal power relations. Such relationships is best reflected through the many ways by which language provides a linkage with ideology through media and other forms of social institutions (Sheyholislami 2001).
Among those who can be considered as experts and knowledgeable in the field of CDA, there is not formally accepted definition of the term CDA. They have boldly accepted the hardship of being able to delimit ideology. Mayr (2008b: 10) emphasized that CDA is all about revealing the frequently hidden ideologies that are reflected, reinforced, and constructed in common discourse, one which is everyday and institutional. This very factor makes ideology a very critical and crucial concept. The author also mentioned that (ibid.): "Like the concepts of discourse and power, ideology ….."
Kress (1985) acknowledges the complexities of such definition and stressed that ideology can be considered to be one of the less settled categories of sociological and philosophical discussion in the recent century or more past such. The same argument was confirmed by Wodak (2007a: 2) emphasizing that ideology can be considered to be one of the most complex terms of opinions, beliefs, and ideologies. Moreover, when providing a discussion of "the fuzzy life of 'ideology", Van Dijk (1998: 1) maintains that it is almost compulsory for researches about ideology to "begin with a remark about the vagueness of the notion and the resulting theoretical confusion of its analysis".
The definition of the word has spurred many arguments in the past and an agreement ahs also been reached to cover a vast spectrum of the word and refer to it as covering the mere 'neutral science of ideas' which extends up to the negative Marxian concept of 'false consciousness'. The same position has been taken as standpoint by various scholars. Kress (1985: 29) mentioned that the definition of ideology extends "from the relatively innocuous 'system of ideas' or 'worldview' to more contested ones such as 'false consciousness' or 'ideas of the dominant, ruling class'."
Furthermore, Anthonissen (2001: 45) observed that "ideology is defined as a 'delusion'…". The author also emphasized the remark of Eagleton about ideology "is more a matter of ritual practice than conscious doctrine" (Eagleton 1994: 14, cited by Anthonissen 2001: 45).
Wodak (2007a) also mentioned that 'ideology' is a notion which is very complex with regards to opinions, ideologies, and beliefs. The author paved way for the modern debate on ideology with regards to the two main strands or tendencies. On one extreme it has been debated that "ideologies as false theories about reality can be overcome and replaced by scientific theories and/or scientifically founded agency". On the other extreme, there is a dialectical position emphasizing "ideology is an unavoidable moment of all thinking and acting" (Wodak 2007a: 2).
Comparable to the argument on indirect or hidden power, the importance of concealed ideologies is also acknowledged, as against direct and clearly waved ideologies. According to Reah (1998: 54), "[i]t is easy to resist a particular viewpoint or ideology when you know it is being presented to you, but not easy to resist when the viewpoint or ideology is concealed" (cited by Nordlund 2003: 1). In news, it is possible to present ideology in a subtle way as this avenue is not considered to be a classification of discourse which is clearly adopting ideological orientations (see section 2.5.3 below).
With the existing complexities which abound the definition of ideology, I will make a bold attempt to potentially explain how the word will be used in the context of the study which is being completed. Ideology and ideological position or stance, in this work, will be sued to refer to circumstances where sides are taken between contracting parties in the news. It is important to note that one of the critical features of news is its neutrality and objectiveness which require for such medium and avenue to give equal rights to everyone who is concerned in the story. When these rights are waived, it is often that it is the responsibility of the ideological positions of the news producers. The contrastive study of news is anticipated to make contributions in being able to explore the ideological positions in news as there are changes and modifications in the sue of language and expectations of a different audience.
1.4. Cross-Linguistic
The cross-linguistic nature is the third theoretical framework which forms this study. This concept is based on the assumption that the flow of text across language boundaries make sit possible to generate considerable changes that could be bale to exceed the changes to linguistics for the creation of new discursive environments with the use of different power and ideological relations.
The transnational and global media landscape which has been mentioned earlier are notions which surfaced either because of the hegemony of a unique globalize language or with the cross-linguistic transfer of discourse.
Chilton (2004: 137) mentioned that "the new environment at the turn of the twenty-first century called for new actions that had to be explained to multiple audiences." The interest of the author is focused on how language can become an effective and efficient instrument in political discourse intended for various groups of people. For instance, it is assumed that those people who are in the field of politics use language with the objective of being able to provide legitimate actions while considering the people who will receive the message. Politicians see to it that they are able to modify, though manipulating and changing linguistic resources, based on the needs of their anticipated audiences. The author is pointing out communicating a message to the same person, using the same language, and within the premise of the same discourse. The discourse of media is closely link to that of politics (see Wodak 2007a). In media, discourse is modified according to the specified target audience. This notion is very evident with discourse of similar language. It becomes more evident in discourse which transcends linguistic barriers. It is assumed that the circumstances which show an effect on the political discourse find their way in the media discourse, and the other way around as well. For instance, 'infotainment' (see Thussu 2007) is mirrored by the term 'politicotainment' which is used in order to reflect the use of entertainment in the political discourse (see Riegert 2007 and Jones 2007).
The function which is being served by news translation is very significant in the various facets of trans-linguistic, trans-cultural, transnational, and global media environment. In another section of this study, a more detailed discussion will be provided to be able to stipulate the current trends and practices which in the field and practice of news translation (see section 2.7 below). I personally noted the manifestation of the increased interest from CDA scholars to be able to provide a discussion on the mono-lingual discourse of news as against its cross-linguistic dimensions (see section 2.7 below). To be able to effectively address the other dimensions of multicultural and multilingual interests, a separate discipline is created such as translation studies. I also personally observed that there is a higher form of interest among CDA scholars on the mono-lingual discourse of news as against to the interests which is evident on the cross-linguistic dimensions of the said discourse (see section 2.7 below). Nonetheless, a significant amount of research has been found to address other disciplines of either multicultural or multilingual dimensions just like translation studies.
In this section of this research, a discussion will be provided to outline the critical aspects of translation studies, equivalence in translation, and translation theories. Furthermore, this section will also present translation and ideology being notions that connect axis of this theoretical framework to two other axes - the critical and interdisciplinary aspects.
1.4.1. Translation and Equivalence
Translation Studies, an avenue of multilingual research, has improved from merely being just a craft and profession. It has evolved into becoming an interdisciplinary field which is swayed by the various facets of linguistics, comparative literature, studies related to communication, philosophy, and various types of cultural studies such as post-colonialism and postmodernism, and also historiography and sociology (Munday, 2008a). Although they are grounded on different theoretical backgrounds, various researchers have made significant contributions to the development of such discipline with approaches that seem to form the study of translation according to the diversity of backgrounds.
The practice and study of the field of translation, with its diverse global history, has been dominated by arguments which pertain to the degree of translation's equivalence and faithfulness. The dichotomies which exist such as 'word-for-word' against sense-for-sense' and 'literal' against 'free' have been a topic in many debates about translation (see Munday 2008a: 19-22). The academic arguments about the theory of translation have been central to comparing source text (ST) and target text (TT) with fidelity as basic criterion (Yan 2007).
1.4.1.1. Translation Strategies and Procedures
In the past, it is evident that the task of being able to translate a concept or idea from one language to another is no easy undertaking. According to those who can be considered as experts and knowledgeable in the discipline of linguistics, there are not two languages which are identical. Languages all over the world have various compositions and they vary greatly in terms of their perspective, classification, and delimitation. However, acknowledging the complexity of the job, researchers have also long ben fascinated about how translators have found the effective procedures and strategies to be able to successfully combat the difficulty of translation (Newmark 1998, Vinay and Darbelnet 2995 [1997). The following are some of the procedures which were identified:
Borrowing
Vinay and Darbelnet (1995:31) defined borrowing as an activity which is executed to prevail over a lacuna, usually metalingusitic like a new technical process or a concept which is not known yet. The authors have noted that borrowing is considered to the simplest of all the identified methods of translating. Newmark (1988: 81) used the word transference to be able to identify this activity. Other words which are used to denote this undertaking are emprunt, loan word, and transcription (ibid.). The author also identified the procedure as being able to transfer SL word to TL text. This activity normally takes place in language contact situations. Presented below are some of the examples:
Source Language (SL) Target Language (TL)
week end (en) week end (fr)
coup d'etat (fr) coup d'etat (en)
Calque
Calque is a term which is sued to be able to refer to a specific kind of borrowing in which language borrows an expression from one another, however, they translate literally each of its elements (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1995: 32). Vinay and Darbelnet (ibid.) also provided the distinction between lexical and structural calques. If it is a lexical calque, it is characterized by syntactic structures of the target language with the introduction of a new mode of expression. On the other hand, a structural calque refers to the construction of a target language which is totally new. This activity is referred to as through translation (Newman 1988: 84).
compliments of the season! (En) compliments de la saison! (Fr) (Vinay
and Darbelnet 1995:32)
pseudolangue (Fr) Å¡ibh lugah (Ar.) (badawi 1997: 109)
Literal translation
Literal, or word-for-word, translation is a term which is used to refer to the direct transfer of SL text into A TL text which can be considered grammatically and idiomatically correct. In this case, the task of the translator is to be able to observe adherence with regards to the linguistic servitudes of TL (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995: 33). Vinay and Darblnet (1995) refer to literal translation as being the sole solution which can be considered to be reversible and complete in itself. The authors have noticed that it is most common to occur during the process of translation between two languages which belong to the same family and those which have originated from the same culture.
I left my spectacles on the table downstairs (En) J'ai laissé mes lunettes sur la table en bas (Fr)
Where are you? (En) Où êtes-vous? (Fr)
(Vinay and Darbelnet 1995:34)
Transposition
Transposition is the process of being able to replace one word class with another in the absence of modifying its actual meaning (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995: 36). Newmark used the word transposition together with shifts, which have been identified as a process of translation involving modifications and alterations in grammar from SL to TL (Newmark 1988: 85). While some provides limit to teh term to just one class of grammatical change, for instance, word class change, Newmark goes beyond such to be able to touch a wider perspectives of grammatical shifts. With this, the author used plural forms in 'transpositions and shifts'. These shifts are demonstrated in changes which occur with person, gender, number, word order, and changes in word class. To be able to avoid the use of calques, shifts are frequently utilized.
d'une importance exceptionnelle (Fr.) exceptionally large (En) (Newmark 1988: 86)
Modulation
Furthermore, modulation is a term which is used to refer to the distinction on the form of the messaged which is generated by a modification in its perspective. Modulation is used when translation is considered to be not appropriate in the TL although such is assumed to be structurally correct (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995: 36). The same word is used by Newmark to be able to describe the activity. Modulation can be applied to the whole level of the message unlike the previous procedures identified in this research for they are applicable only on words or phrases.
he acted at once…(En) il n'a pas hésité de … (Fr) (Newmark 1988: 88)
Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) and Newmark (1998) have proposed the above models which have been supplemented and expanded by other scholars and researchers who have successfully completed similar works in the field related to translation. Today, they are still considered to be effective methods which can be utilized for teaching translation and also for the analysis of its quality (see, for instance, Didaoui 1995, 2005).
The factors which have been earlier stipulated are activities and procedures which are commonly executed in the teaching and study of translation. With the use of various translation procedures, there also arise actions which anticipate to potentially ascertaining various kinds of translation and degrees of equivalence between source texts and target texts. This could be arranged in continuum from literal to free translation, with differing degrees of proximity with the source text (for a more detailed discussion of the various perspectives see Hatim and Mason 1990, Mudany 2008a, Dickins et al. 2002).
It is assumed that the translated message should, as much as possible, be faithful with the original message. This view is evident among practitioners in the field of linguistics in spit of the acceptance of the various degrees of equivalence. For instance, the illusory search for the perfect equivalence between ST and TT has also been acknowledged along with the recognition of the fact that there will be some kind of loss along the process of translation (Dickens et al 2000: 21). It is also acknowledged that one of the main responsibilities which should be assumed by the translator is to be able to potentially reduce the possibility of loss in translation to the least possible level (ibid.).
It is necessary to give a short discussion on translation equivalence and translation procedures to have a better understanding of media translation and the translation of news. In the succeeding parts of this paper, it will be evident that the translation of news extends further than its maximum degree (e.g. free translation) admitted by those who are expert and concerned in the field (see section 2.7 below).
1.4.2. Translation, Discourse and Ideology
There is a new approach which has been identified to be able to potentially provide a new perspective towards translation. This uses a larger textual approached as influenced by the development of discourse analysis in applied linguistics. Forming a substantial basis from the systemic functional grammar of Halliday (Munday 2008a: 90), these approaches are seen to approach translation both as a process and end result with emphasis on the register and discourse level (see, for instance, Hatim and Mason 1990, Mason 2009). Nevertheless, earlier works with regards to this discipline have centrally emphasized the formal definition of discourse. There was very minimal attention which was dedicated to the bigger effects of discourse which transcends the linguistic content considering economic, social, and political implications of the discourse which is being translated.
A movement of cultural and ideological perspectives has surfaced in the field of translation discipline that was represented in the approach of the evaluation of translation from purely cultural perspectives (Munday 2008a: 125). This is in spite of the fact that it was already acknowledged that ideology is recognized as 'invisible hand' in the field of translation and in spite also of the fact that translation is influenced by various factors including those that reflects the differences between nations and countries (Yan 2007: 63)
In other words, many of the studies which have been undertaken which were grounded upon ideological perspectives have been concerned about the possibility of being to reveal the manipulation in the TT. This can be possibly reflective of the ideology of the translator or can be an end product of ideological factors which are present in the translation environment. Such factors could include, but not exclusive of, existing pressure which was received from the publishers, authorities or groups which can form a significant influence such as the government or institution. Such tension is created between 'foreignization' and 'domestication' resulting into 'translator's invisibility' according to Venuti (2008).
Along with the importance of cultural studies in this context, it is also evident that other theories and frameworks have been used such as the hallidayan functional grammar, narrative theory, and critical studies (see, for instance, Baker 2009). Because of these approaches, the study of translation is being directed and linked closer towards CDA and critical studies on a larger scale.
1.5. Synopsis
On this part of the study, I will present the main theoretical foundations which form the basis of this study. The three pillars earlier mentioned - interdisciplinary, critical, and cross-linguistic - will be given short discussions along with multimodality, power, ideology, and translation equivalence. This study could be assumed to be a contractive critical discourse analysis. Because of the wide reach of the theories which form foundation of this research, it is anticipated that the literatures used in this section, along with the other references which are sued in section 2, will provide a clearer perspective of the issue being studied.
