The 9/11 attack against the twin towers in USA, along with the bombing attacks in London underground and in Madrid's railway station, reopen the discussion concerning the issues of terrorism and victimhood , not only because of the incidents themselves but due to the ideological context and the social causes which fostered them. After those attacks, a debate started with philosophical characteristics focusing on what terrorism is and whether it is morally justified or not, considering its tragic consequences (Meggle, Georg, ed. 2005). As a result, the portrait of the terrorist was reshaped following the new data provided by this debate while the way the society faces the issue of terrorism, mainly as it is presented by the media, was examined. Furthermore, the counter terroristic laws and additional legislation that were brought in Europe and America after the attacks mentioned above, and the statements and declarations of the former USA president George W. Bush and other political leaders, concerning the war against terrorism (Shanahan, Timothy, ed., 2005), were on the centre f major political concern and criticism.
The previous incidents comprised the first idea in order to begin to search the phenomenon of terrorism and I wish to initiate my research from the starting point of terrorism as a concept in Europe which through an evolutionary process took its contemporary form. During my initial research several questions came up, which had to be answered. However, in this process, the issues of terrorism and victimhood gained a new approach as new questions were posed: for example, how the actions of terrorism influence our society either in practical or consciousness level (Goodin, Robert E, 2006).
These questions, basically, concern the context as well as the expedience of the issues of terrorism and victimhood, because the socio-political and ideological developments and ethnical classifications in Europe, mostly after the dark ages, have determined the progress of the entire west civilization till nowadays. Firstly, a basic question concerns the position and the relationship that develops between those who exercise violence and those who are directly affected by it. Additionally, which are the socio-political frames where terrorism can be developed and what are the motives of the persons or the groups that are intentionally involved in this issue? Furthermore, what are the historical frames where the victimhood factor was altered to such an extent in the evolutionary progress that led from the militaristic model to the international terrorism? Finally, what are the visual testimonies that present this evolution and how these testimonies assist us in understanding historically and ideologically the concept of terrorism and its contribution to the social evolution from the feudalism to the civic model?
The methodology in this research is based on the philosophical approach of the issues of terrorism and victimhood (Govier, Trudy, 2002) on the grounds that their evolutionary form can be observed, combined and defined through the artistic depictions of historical events. Specifically, the terrorism as a historical phenomenon coincides with the history of political violence. The term "terrorism", nevertheless, is rather modern as it has been used since the end of 18th century (Laqueur, Walter, ed. 1987). The use of the term, undoubtedly, has been transformed since then, as the political and social situation has changed greatly; basically, there has been a polemical situation of emotional overload based on unfulfilled nationalistic pursuits or religious fundamelistic actions of revenge which are quite difficult and different from each other to be interpreted. However, the understanding and the explanation of the term takes the form of a rationalistic analysis concerning the nature of terrorism, its ethical hypostasis and the appropriate confrontation measures (Gilbert, Paul, 1994).
Philosophically, terrorism as a conceptual issue must be analysed by examining the historical frame that established its use as a term and the characteristics of that period. On the other hand, another aspect on which it is very important to focus is its ethical point of view and particularly the relationship between the terrorist and the victim. At this point there is a need for a closer analysis about the conceptual and the ethical approach of the term "terrorism" so that the theoretical background of this research can be more tangible.
The first time historically recorded, the term "terrorism" meant the reign and the enforcement of terror by Jacobins in France from the autumn of 1793 till the summer of 1794. This violent period in French history is known as "Reign of Terror" which had as a purpose the recreation of society and human nature. To achieve this, firstly, the governmental form had to be changed, namely to make the old regime collapse. In addition, rebels had to suppress the reactions of the revolutionary government's enemies and convince the population for their political superiority and their good intentions (Kerr, Wilfred Brenton 1985). In order to accomplish its purposes The Jacobins' revolutionary government proceeded to a series of measures which were under no legal justice actions but it satisfied the sense of justice in the hearts and minds of its members. Death was the basic practice and the only outcome for the victims. All this sufferance and the executions aimed to cause fear among not only their enemies but also all the people. These violations of the law were essential prerequisites so that in the new regime could be established and comprised the logic of the Reign of Terror as they were morally justified by the Jacobins' revolutionary government (Schama, Simon 1989).
However, the term "terrorism" and its parameters soon took negative meaning. Since the time of the French Revolution the critics of the Jacobins' extreme violence observed the parameters of the horror. Thus, terrorism is connected with the abuse of power along with the notional meaning of tyranny having as a basic purpose intimidation, which comprises an issue that reinstates the political philosophy nowadays, especially after the terrorist attacks mentioned above. At this point, terrorism became a propaganda instrument, which covers the entire 19th century. As a result, its modern use as a political propaganda instrument reshaped the meaning of the terrorism which took a more descriptive form so that its results could be evaluated. Since, some older forms of political struggle could not implemented by groups of anarchists, nationalistic and generally revolutionary groups in the modern social reality, the concept and the practices of terrorism changed, too. The modern revolutionary groups reached the conclusion that the dialectical method to solve social problems is not enough but new age problems require immediate action. These actions were based on an ideological platform that objected to injustice and social oppression which were caused by the political system. So the existence and action of these groups is a response to this oppression and the ultimate goal is to change the socio-political status quo dynamically proceeding to assassinations of individuals that exercise political power and bombing attacks (R.G Frey and Christopher W. Morris, 1991).
Apart from the concept of terrorism as a propagandistic tool of political violence by armed insurgent groups, there is another parameter of equivalent importance, the state terrorism. Usually the state terrorism is identical to the totalitarian regimes that try to impose a collective political control over society. In this case, such a radical pursuit requires an equal radical method to target to the mass fear of a defenceless population. Police is the tool of this method. The based-on-police-force state is a model of governance where police is used by the state as a mechanism of control and repression of civilians in a violent and unconstitutional manner by violating individual freedoms. The success of the initial target comes from the arbitrary nature of the method. Furthermore, the selection of victims is characterized by the lack of predictability. This kind of state violence in totalitarian regimes is the most extreme kind of state terrorism. According to Hannah Arendt "terror is the essence of totalitarian domination" (Arendt 1958: 464). However, state terrorism exists not only in totalitarian regimes, but history has shown cases where non-totalitarian regimes have resorted to the practice of this kind of terrorism as a method of fighting against the civilian population, especially during the Second World War (Douglas Lackey, 2004: 128-38).
Following the philosophical investigation of terrorism we see that as a concept it has been transformed both in its evaluation and description as it appears through two centuries of the use of the term. Nevertheless, we can observe that it consists of two main features, violence and intimidation. According to the conceptual approach, terrorism is usually a form of violence which aims primarily at intimidating to transform political, religious and general social goals. Furthermore, there are reports that define the terror, not on who is the aggressor or the ultimate goals, but what has happened so far and what are the root causes that determine its existence. Such reports that define terrorism are: "The performance of violent acts, directed against one or more persons, intended by the performing agent to intimidate one or more persons and thereby to bring about one or more of the agent's political goals" (Per Bauhn 1989: 28), "The tactic of intentionally targeting non-combatants [or non-combatant property, when significantly related to life and security] with lethal or severe violence … meant to produce political results via the creation of fear" (C.A.J Coady 2001: 1697) and "The deliberate use of violence, or threat of its use, against innocent people, with the aim of intimidating some other people into a course of action they otherwise would not take" (Igor Primoratz 2004: 24).
If we look carefully at the three definitions above, we can see that there is a significant difference. While Coady and Primoratz defined terrorism as violence against civilians and innocent people, Bauhn avoided including such a restriction. Therefore, the definitions of Coady and Primoratz can be described as ¨narrow¨ and Bauhn's as ¨wide¨. Specifically, the ¨wide¨ definition covers the entire history of terrorism by imposing the rule of terror (Reign of Terror) by the Jacobins until today and everything that the term includes in the modern sense. On the other hand, the ¨narrow¨ definition restricts the use and the analysis of terrorism in the brutal attack against civilians and innocent people. It is approaching the issue from the moral point of view. Sociologists and historians of terrorism prefer to analyze the problem using the method of the ¨narrow¨ definition and while Philosophers use the ¨wide¨ one. Because of the complexity of the issue of terrorism in this survey we will use the combination of both methods in approach and analysis as the moral side of the issue is directly related to its pictorial display as it will be seen below.
Terrorism has preoccupied society mostly in terms of the number of victims, mainly the innocent ones. The key question is whether terrorism is morally justified concerning its existence. Therefore, since there is no specific definition that defines terrorism, any approach to explain whether it is morally justified would be unfounded. In this research the term terrorism will focus on the analysis of a violent act against innocent civilians and citizens and function as a tool to intimidate and coerce. At this point, the relationship between victim and aggressor should be clarified. The viewpoint that both the victim and the aggressor is a two-way relationship that defines their existence is an obvious fact as there wouldn't be a victim if there wasn't a terrorist and vice versa. The question is whether the victim is totally innocent and what are those parameters that can turn the victim into an aggressor. Initially, the victim may be civilian or an ordinary citizen, but, nevertheless, he may not be completely innocent or uninvolved in what the terrorist is fighting for, having justified his/her actions in both ideological and sociological ways. Secondly, the existence of both works as a balance in terms of social development. Bearing in mind the foregoing questions about what the sociopolitical contexts in which terrorism prospered and evolved, we have to examine the notion of the victim thoroughly.
The first two questions can be analyzed by approaching the issue of terrorism and the victimhood philosophically, according to the previously mentioned methodology. The exploration of the third question is essentially a process in which we try to connect our philosophical analysis to the modern consciousness of these issues. A key factor which develops consciousness perception along with a thorough historical documentation is art (Herbert Edward Read 1955). The methodology to investigate the issues of the terrorism and the victimhood, at this point, is of great interest because it combines the philosophical syllogism with the visual depiction. Thus, in order to approach and analyze the elements which specify, describe and define the issues of terrorism and victimhood, philosophically and consciously, we will use a specific branch of the history of art, iconography. In this research iconography, as a visual language of analysis, will examine the details of specific issues through the artwork of three artists Jacques Callot (c. 1592 - 1635), Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (1746 -1828) and Honoré Daumier (1808-1879). The choice of those three particular artists came as a result of the fact that they created artworks whose themes represent three major periods in which the phenomena of terrorism and victimhood were simultaneously, reasons and results of the socio-political and ideological change on the European continent.
As a matter of fact, the period Jacques Callot lived, particularly the socio-political environment of governance and everyday life, followed the pattern that existed during the Middle Ages, namely the parochial. Due to the need for change, the total reconstruction of the economy, and the redefinition of religious influence under a single doctrine, the social structures and the governance model that prevailed in the Middle Ages would obtain a more concentrated character. The method of governance in the Îœiddle Ages until the end of the 16th century followed the model of the feudal system. Under this socio-political structure a decentralized control was adopted stemming from the feudal lords who owned large tracts controlling and dominating everyone who lived within them, thereby weakening the central authority. Therefore, there was a weak monarchy since the feudal lords were not supported nor accountable to it, and certainly not seeking to protect their fiefdoms as they had self-protection which was provided by small groups of armed mercenaries (SH Steinberg 1966). In addition, the 16th century was a period of religious upheaval as in October 1517 Martin Luther (1483-1546) reintroduced the question of issuing indulgences by papal church (Michael A. Mullett 2004). Within such a frame of social, religious and political reshaping the Thirty Years War broke out (1618-1648) which, although at the beginning took the form of religious conflict quickly generalized in one of the most destructive wars in European history, which ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 (Geoffrey Parker 1997).
During exactly this Thirty Years War time, Callot lived in Nancy, the capital of Lorraine. In Nancy, he created the series of artworks which is addressed in this thesis. It is a series of eighteen engravings entitled Les Grandes Misères de la guerre (The Large Miseries of War) which were published in 1633 and is considered the first anti-war petition to the art of Western culture (Ann Sutherland Harris 2005: 258). Generally, this series of artworks is a narration or a visual narrative documentation of the violent atmosphere that existed during the invasion of troops sent by Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642) in 1633 to occupy Lorraine. The purpose of Callot appears not to be a historical depiction of the invasion, but an effort to develop a logical sequence to deplore acts of war or war itself as a practice. Therefore, he focuses on presenting his themes in a theatrical way and keeping a distance from the events of violence. In particular, the illustrations in the second and third engraving of Callot focus on the recruitment of soldiers and correspondingly to a generalized battle, which are the only of this series. Then he compiles the engravings in two groups. From the fourth to the eighth engraving he describes the looting and violence against civilians and innocent villagers. The ninth engraving serves as a transition, and describes an organization that seeks to capture the perjured soldiers, which leads to a crescendo of violent and heinous punishments and executions from the tenth to the fourteenth engraving which are reminiscent of the practice of sovereignty and terror the Jacobins imposed in France (see Antoine De Baecque 2003: 91). The next three etchings describe another kind of punishment, misfortune that awaits those who escaped or survived the human verdict. The last engraving indicates the end not only of the war but also the passing from one era to another, the collapse of feudalism and the rise of absolute monarchy (Esther Holden Averill 1969).
Technically, the series of engravings The Large Miseries of War reflects the perception of the artist of the socio-political environment within which the prints were created. The landscapes have a pastoral character depicting a more feudal way of life than an urban one. Callot also groups the figures of people and creates faceless forms as during that time there was no sense of individuality, so we cannot talk about the value of human as a unit, a self-inclusive personality and therefore as an active citizen. An additional factor is the distance that keeps the artist from the theme he depicted, in order to show, on the one hand, that he specifies neither the victims nor the aggressors because in such violent war atmosphere and social life in general there was no national cohesion in order for someone to take position on the actions of violence and terrorism. On the other hand, the themes that Callot depicted were so appalling and the society was so turbulent that the fear kept him away from focusing to the victim or the aggressor. He focuses only on the presentation of violence and on the switch of roles between the victim and the aggressor in order to come to declare the restoration of social balance and the beginning of a new era (Joseph Canning, Hartmut Lehmann, JM Winter 2004: 135-140, 148-149).
Continuing the pictorial description of the philosophical approach to terrorism and victimhood, the series of engravings of Callot The Large Miseries of War was an inspiration and influence for a Spanish painter Francisco de Goya to create his own set of prints entitled Disasters of War. Goya created the series between 1810 and 1820, and it is divided into three thematic sections. But before we look at the content of the engravings, we must mention the historical and ideological frame in which they were conceived and created. Initially, the epoch we examine is a time when the lessons and the results of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution (1789) are still fresh. The Enlightenment was a major ideological movement that covers almost the entire 18th century and inspired society with important values such as tolerance, freedom and equality. These values, with the help of science and rationality, clarified the empirical philosophy as a way to solve problems in the social level as for example the fact that people have natural rights and that there should be separation of powers. Thus, the propagandist of scepticism criticizes the social and religious hierarchy and denies the nobility and of course the reign of absolute monarchy (Peter Gay 1995).
This ideological movement began to suggest the concept of citizenship and strengthen the rising bourgeoisie in its efforts to improve the absolute monarchy at that time and turned into a constitutional factor, providing citizens with physical and legal rights under the lessons of the Enlightenment. This was the occasion of the outbreak of the Revolution in France but the transitional period will be characterized by violence and the reign of terror of the Jacobins. From the French Revolution until the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) is the period of massive military conflict. Within this frame the Peninsular War occurs during which the French led by Napoleon invade Spain and Goya as an eyewitness records the disasters of War and the atrocities that the French soldiers committed. The Disasters of War of Goya is a visual presumption of violence and terrorism that existed during the French invasion of Spain and its results in the Spanish society.
In particular, the series is divided into three major sections. The first group of prints (plates 1-47) describes the violence, executions, rapes and, in general, the horror of war. The terrified Spanish suffer from the savagery of the French soldiers with minor flares of courage for resistance and revenge. The second group (plates 48-64) describes the effects of famine in Madrid that lasted a year from 1811 until 1812. They are incidents from various regions of Spain which Goya captured to present a general view of the results of the war regarding the suffering of ordinary people. The third group of series (plates 65-82) describes the restoration of power from House of Bourbon and the enthronement of Ferdinand VII (1784-1833). In this situation, Goya kept a critical position that essentially was a political protest with satirical attitude concerning the persons and the institutions that are dealing with power such as politicians and the Church (Philip Hofer 2006).
Technically, the engravings are generally dark. Goya uses the environment to give the feeling of fear and horror of war with dark forms. Also, the use of dark patterns is explained emotionally because of the deafness problems afflicting the health of the artist. The figures are depicted realistically affordable initially because of the medium (using the method of aquatints), and secondly because it aims to show greater distress of both the victims and the aggressor with the gruesome purposes. The most important thing in the technique used by Goya is that he focuses on the theme and observes both the victim and the aggressor, but with more sympathy to the victim. This is initially for sentimental reasons because he placed himself in the position of the victim as he was Spanish, so he compassioned with the misery of his compatriots. Also, the social structures had changed and the concept of the nation had become a crucial matter. So it is self-evident the fact of the attack of a foreign nation (in this case the French) against the Spanish people. Another reason that Goya focuses on is an ideological issue. The human being, especially after the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, had gained value on the individuality and the rights of the citizen. Therefore, the Spanish citizen was not a simple war victim but he was the personification of the violation of human rights and the abolition of civil liberties (Fred Licht 1973).
From the 19th century until the early 20th, the period is characterized by large and significant changes in economic, industrial, geographical, social, political and ideological level that gradually led to the reshaping of the functioning of European countries, by helping in this direction the so-called Concert of Europe which was restored by the Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck (1815-1898). Particularly, the ideological ferment and the social requirements have created a series of revolutions and transnational disputes with regard to the political influence, which lead to inevitable wars. The 19th century is the period of the industrial revolution, the civil war in the U.S. and of course the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) that led to the Paris Commune (1871). This atmosphere of terror was not only in the battlefield but it was also transferred to urban centres. It obtained a civil nature by developing the conditions for urban guerrilla warfare of generalized type (Edward M. Burns 2006: 462-799).
The Industrial Revolution created an enormous accumulation of people from rural areas to cities, which were transformed into major urban centres. These people were the essential labour force to the industrialized urban growth. The working class was therefore bound gradually to acquire class consciousness that would lead to their demand for labour rights and their opposition to whatever would contradict to their own interests, having as a weapon the revolution. Such a revolution broke out after the end of the Franco-Prussian War in Paris and the revolutionary government group known as the Paris Commune (David A. Shafer 2005).
Because of these major changes in Europe and using the same method of research, we must see how art reflected the evolution of terrorism and the victimization of an artist whose life and work is covering most of the 19th century, Honoré Daumier. During this period, Daumier had created artworks in which he satirizes militarism and condemns the political and state violence. Specifically, in the first period, Daumier is dealing with political "cartooning" and worked for the magazine La Caricature. While working for the magazine he satirized the King Louis-Philippe I (1773-1850). This criticism led him to a six-month imprisonment because of the censorship which was imposed in 1830. In the second period he created allegorical compositions satirising the policy pursued by Louis-Napoleon III (1808-1873). The next sentence in the decade of 1860 will give great attention to artwork with antimilitarist content using the metaphor as a tool to capture ideas on lithographs. Finally, the abhorrence of the practice of war and violence will describe the projects listed in the Franco-Prussian War (Howard Paton Vincent 1968). Technically, the Daumier is dealing with terrorism and victimhood as a result of violence or using semiotic references from ancient myths or anthropomorphising ideological principles to express the truth. The environment for Daumier has secondary importance and thus mostly he leaves it blank or sometimes the background consists of victims of violent actions in order to give a dramatic tone in his composition. The censorship that was imposed during the government of Louis-Napoleon III was a major reason that Daumier used a semantic approach to subjects. This becomes the contents of prints from a social and political satire to intense protest (Charles F. Ramus 1978).
It is important to present the structure of my thesis in order a clearer picture of my research to be shown. Resuming the above information as an introduction of my thesis I will present the purpose and the motives that led me to search the concept of terrorism and victimhood. In addition, I will analyse the importance of using printmaking as a medium which is capable of reproducing not only simple artwork but also important ideas and ideological inquiries. The third thematic in my introduction will be the relationship of the methodologies that I mentioned above
As a prologue I am dealing with two terms that are very important in order to explain the psychological state and its physical application. The psychological state of aggression and the violence are two parameters that explain the existence of war in the societies. Continuing the thesis, in the first chapter will be analysed the instruments that come up the above terms. The terrorism as a historical concept along with the military terrorism will lead to the term victimhood which includes two parameters, the psychological state of an individual or a social group and the socio-political instrumentality.
Afterwards, the next chapter will refer to Jacques Callot. Firstly I will analyse the historical and the ideological frame during the Thirty Years War along with Callot's biography so as to be clearer the conditions that the artist created the Large Miseries of War which will be analysed in the third part of this chapter. Similarly in the chapter number three, the historical and the ideological frame will be analysed concerning the French occupation in Spain during the Peninsular War that influenced Goya to develop the Disasters of War. In this chapter there will be the biography of the artist and the analysis of his series of prints. Likewise the above artists will be analysed in the forth chapter Honore Daumier's satiric and allegoric artwork concerning the Franco-Prussian War. The historical and ideological frame will be similarly analysed in this chapter.
In the fifth chapter I will analyse the connection and the evolution of the terror from the feudal society till early urban model. In particular, there will be the analysis of the artists as social observer and the artists as war witnesses in order to be specified the transformation of terrorism and victimhood through the transition from the feudalism to the early ethnical-nation state. In the epilogue of my thesis I will analyse the result of the above evolution concerning terrorism and victimhood in modern societies along with the influence that the above artworks have nowadays either in society or in the art world.
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