Learning strategies are defined as behaviours or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable Oxford, 1989. Although the study of language learning strategies has seen an "explosion of activity" as interpreted by Skehan (1991) and a large number of research studies have been conducted in this language area in recent years, most of the studies have mainly focused on features of good language learners. Some other related studies can be categorized as cross-sectional studies that try to identify correlations between strategy use and second language proficiency, identifying and raising students' awareness in learning strategies, attempts to train learners to employ particular strategies and the potential effect of strategy training on learners' language performance. On the other hand, there are not enough studies concerning teachers' own perception about incorporating language learning strategies into their teaching.
As Anderson (2005) states in his book, in order to have metacognitively aware learners, we must have metacognitively aware teachers. Studies that are mainly about learners' perception fail to consider teachers' own beliefs and experiences as factors affecting language learning process.
Students spend a considerable time trying to internalize the language as intensive language programs are compulsory in a number of universities in Turkey and students deal with the language in their departments through departmental English courses. They are still not able to reach the desirable level in language either in production or in formal examination settings. As Cohen (1998) suggests, language learning will be facilitated when students are trained to learn long-term strategy use and become more aware of the range of possible strategies that they can consciously select during language learning and use. While investigating the effects of learning strategies on students' learning processes, there is still a gap in language research concerning the crucial role of teachers that is neglected. Although the foremost aim of strategy training should be facilitation of autonomy or help students gain control
of their own learning process, teachers play a crucial role in guiding students to autonomous learning and evaluating their own learning processes. O'Malley et al. (1985) noted that transfer of strategies to new learning activities may be extremely sensitive, requiring continuous prompts and structured directions until the strategies become autonomous. Although the ultimate goal is to help learners take control of their own learning, it is the teachers' role to bring about the learners' self-awareness, to empower them by providing structured directions on when and how to use a strategy and to give feedback, evaluate their performance and provide support if needed.
In spite of the fact that learning a language as a second language differs from learning it as a foreign one, the term second language (L2) is going to be used by the researcher in this research. This is following the same usage of the term by many scholars in this field amongst whom are Krashen (1981) and Ellis (1994).
Title
As the title indicates, the teachers and students might not have identical perspectives about language learning.
This study aims at indicating potential different viewpoints about language learning from the teacher and students perspectives. The researcher will try to achieve this goal through conducting two questionnaires, one among the instructors and another one among the second and third year students of the English language department at the college of languages in Salahadin University.
The Problem
It is obvious that language learning is not an easy process; learners should exert efforts and use different strategies to learn. However, previous beliefs about learning in general had disregarded the role of the learners and had mostly focused on teaching, but since early 1980s, this belief has changed and learners have been given great importance.
Students graduate from the language colleges usually with diverse knowledge and capacity about language. Among other factors, one of the reasons of that discrepancy is the way the students learn and the adequacy of the learning strategy that they use.
This reality applies to the students of language colleges in Kurdistan Region. The researcher through the present study attempts to find out what are the strategies that the second and third year students use to learn language in the English language department at the college of languages in Salahadin University.
1.3 Aim of the Study
The researcher aims at investigating whether differences, proximity or similarity in the teachers' and learners' view points about L2 learning could hinder, facilitate or help the process of learning.
Hypotheses
It is hypothesized that teachers and students not necessarily have identical approaches in the process of language learning.
It is also hypothesized that teacher's and student's identical or proximate perspectives on language learning may help the learning process, and this can only be proved or disproved through conducting questionnaires and observations.
The Scope of the Study
This research will focus on teachers, as well as second and third year students of the English department at the college of languages in Salahadin University. It is restricted to check language learning and teaching processes at the university level, and aims at measuring the proximity between the students learning strategies and teachers consideration for them. It also analyzes the curricula of the second and third year students of the English department at the college of languages in Salahadin University, in order to measure its effect on the most common students' strategies in use.
The Procedures
The researcher will:
Conduct questionnaires among teachers and students of the second and fourth year of the English language department through which the researcher will try to make an inventory of the students LLS use; and identify the students and teachers perspectives of LLS.
Statistically compute and analyze the output of the questionnaires.
Come up with any new proposals and recommendations.
Significance of the study
The significance of the study is that it would show the importance of the LLS use while learning L2. It would also indicate that not all learners use the same learning strategies; therefore, differences in the language capacity emerge among learners of the same group and age.
This study will also show the importance of teachers' role in guiding language learners to achieve a good result. This goal could only be achieved by minimizing the possible differences of viewpoints between the teachers and learners on language learning process; and providing the learners proper instruction on LLS.
The researcher hopes to come up with a concrete conclusion and adequate recommendations.
Chapter Two:
Theoretical Background
2.1 Introduction
Identification of the factors affecting learners' performance in language learning, is one the issues that has primarily concerned the language researchers and the psycholinguists. According to Anderson (2005), since the beginning of 1970s close attention has been given to the role of language learning strategies in L2 learning (Anderson, 1991; Cohen, 1990, 1998; Hosenfeld, 1979; Naiman, Frohlich, & Todesco, 1975; O'Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford 1990, 1993, 2002; Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975; Wenden, 1991, 2002; Wong-Fillmore, 1979).
The important role of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) was first noticed while language researchers, who were interested in making studies about the second and foreign language acquisition, were examining the features of good language learners. According to Rubin (1975), who was one of the researchers, it was not only a language aptitude or motivation that caused a learner to excel in language but students' own active participation in the learning process through the application of individualized learning strategies.
Willing (1989) and Vogely (1995) also attribute students' learning problems particularly to the use of inadequate or inappropriate learning strategies, in addition to other learning factors which influence the ultimate level of achievement.
2.1.1 Learning in general
It is important to shed light on the immergence of the term "learning" in the process of education. Prior to the second half of the 20th century there was a widespread belief that education was the worthwhile knowledge that was passed from one generation to the other through official education and training processes. However, many considered that education was related to cognitive and training to skills, therefore, they believed that the two terms were different and they should be separated from each other. Therefore, the term "learning" immerged as a new term to stand for education and training and representing both cognitive and skill based notions. One of the problems with this terminology was the ambiguity that had accompanied it, due to the fact that education and training are of institutional nature and learning is of individual nature. (Jarvis et al 2003)
Behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism are three main types of learning theories. Each theory focuses on different aspect of learning. For example behaviorism focuses solely on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories tackle issues that are beyond the behavior. Last but not least, constructivism considers learning as a process in which the learner actively work on building new ideas or concepts. (Wikipedia.org)
There was an early attempt in 1929 by Yeaxlee who tried to introduce lifelong education which concerns adults, but that attempt did not yield till 1975 when UNESCO adopted the idea (Lengrand, 1975 mentioned in Jarvis, 2003)
The researcher here focuses on the language learning, and tries to explain the factors that affect the L2 learning.
"Learning is a complex process. It requires that a student is willing or motivated to learn, that a student is able to learn, that a student is in a social and academic environment that fosters learning, and that the instruction that is available is comprehensible and effective for the learner." (Jonassen and Grabowski 1993:4)
According to (Jonassen and Grabowski 1993) low-anxiety learners are better at language learning, while people with high anxiety are good at other learning tasks such as simple, noncomplex tasks, mechanical tasks, and repetitive tasks, those which require reassurance.
With regard L2 learning, Haymes (2003) presents six factors that play a remarkable role which are culture shock, comprehensible input and output, language acquisition versus language learning, the optimum age for learning an L2, the affective filter, and the silent period.
Learning in general is a process that requires cautious efforts from the learners in order to make it happen.
2.1.2 Language learning
Language learning and language acquisition are two terms used interchangeably in linguistics. According to Lyons (1981), if language is of innate nature, as Chomskyans believe, it is not appropriate to use the term acquisition, because in that case, the language grows or matures naturally.
As Lyons (1981) says, learning could happen as a result of studying, experience or instruction, and each one would directly affect knowledge building.
Regarding the complexity of L2 learning Brown says:
Learning A second language is a long and complex undertaking. Your whole person is affected as you struggle to reach beyond the confines of your first language and into new language, a new culture, a new way of thinking, feeling, and acting. Total commitment, total involvement, a total physical, intellectual, and emotional response are necessary to successfully send and receive messages in a second language. Many variables are involved in the acquisition process. Language learning is not a set of easy steps that can be programmed in a quick do-it-yourself kit. (2007: 1)
L2 learning is a complex process; the learners need to exert big efforts in order to learn. In normal situations, the first language is acquired unintentionally and the learners do not have to be cautious about acquiring it.
Griffiths says that different variables affect the L2 learning such as nationality, age, gender and motivation. (ELT journal G1/2 April 2007)
Almost all linguists and psychologists agree on the fact that the normal children usually acquire the mother tongue or the first language that they hear spoken around them without special instruction from parents or caretakers. Lyons (1981) stresses that children start talking roughly at the same time and they go through the same stages of language development. Lyons adds that children are so fast in learning language that makes it impossible for the parents or researchers to make a proper follow up and keep a comprehensive and systematic record of their development.
Regarding the L2 learning, it is completely different. The learners have to exert efforts and need help for their language capacity development. Nevertheless, there are different subjective and environmental factors that affect L2 learning and proficiency.
Ellis (1997) divides the factors that affect the L2 learning into two categories, internal and external. Social milieu and the input that learners receive he considers as external factors. Cognitive mechanisms, the mother tongue, which has brought a lot of linguistic knowledge to the learners, aptitude and possession of the communication strategies are considered as internal factors.
2.1.3 Language learners
The researcher by "language learners" refers to all those who have acquired their first language and try to learn L2 cautiously. Being a difficult process, language learning requires the learners to exert big efforts.
"A learner is someone who is learning about a particular subject or how to do something." (Sinclair etal, 1990: 822) (Collins, English language dictionary)
Unlike the first language acquisition, L2 learning requires the learners to exert efforts. According to Chastain (1988) affective, cognitive, social and biological factors are among the variables that affect the L2 learning process. All of these factors are related to the learners, and indicate that learners are mainly responsible for their learning.
Nunan (1999) has classified language learners into four categories: concrete, analytical, communicative and authority oriented learners. As he elaborates, "concrete" learners are those who like to watch movies, listening to music, like games and like to practice the language outside the classroom. As for "analytical learners", they like to study grammar, practice readings, look for their own mistakes and work on the teacher given problems. For Nunan, the "communicative" learners are social people who practice the language by interacting with native speakers and friends, they use the language outside the classroom during their daily life and highly depend on conversation. The last category are the "authority-oriented" learners who would prefer the teachers to explain everything, they depend a lot on their own textbooks, they study grammar, read and learn new words by seeing them.
2.1.4 Characteristics of good language learners
Since 1975 linguists and psycholinguists started to focus on language learners, while before then the learners were considered to be passive and teachers were regarded as the main factors that could make language learning happen. Perspectives on learners changed after Rubin and Stern published their researches in 1975. Joan Rubin published a research under the title (what the "Good Language Learner" can teach us?), and H. H. Stern published: (What can we learn from the good language learner?). Both authors put a lot of consideration for the role of the learners while learning L2.
Rubin (1975) says: "Good language learning is said to depend on at least three variables: aptitude, motivation and opportunity." Rubin puts aptitude on the top of the three as this one is least subject to manipulation.
As learners are the center for discussion regarding teaching and learning, a good number of initial studies on language learning strategies were aimed at defining the "Good" language learner. There is common agreement among teachers and researchers that no single method of language teaching and research findings would mark the start of universal success in teaching a second language (Brown, 2007).
"We saw that certain learners seemed to be successful regardless of methods or techniques of teaching …… Certain people appeared to be endowed with abilities to succeed; others lacked those abilities" (Brown, 2007: 132).
L2 learners have some characteristics that could be considered as common to all learners. According to Nunan (1999) the educational level, the ethnic background and the first language are among the characteristics of language learners.
The good language learners should be able to think in the new language and speak with it. This would help the L2 learners to avoid translating expressions from the L1 into the L2, which eventually help the L2 learner be fluent. "Naiman et al. (1975) added that good language learners learn to think in the language and deal with the affective aspects of language learning." (Carter and Nunan, 2001:169)
Observations and research studies led researchers (Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975; Rubin and Thompson, 1994) to describe "good" language learners in terms of personal characteristics, styles, and strategies. They believe that good language learners:
1. Find their own way, taking responsibility for their own learning,
2. Organize information about language,
3. Are creative, and try to feel the language by experimenting its grammar and words,
4. Create opportunities for practice in using the language inside and outside the classroom,
5. Learn to live with uncertainty by not getting confused and by continuing to talk or listen without understanding every word,
6. Use memory strategies to bring back what has been learned,
7. Make errors work for them and not against them,
8. Use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of the first language, in learning a second language
9. Use contextual cues to help them in comprehension,
10. Learn to make intelligent guesses,
11. Learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to help them perform "beyond their competence",
12. Learn to use certain tricks to keep conversations going,
13. Learn certain production strategies to fill in gaps in their own competence,
14. Learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their language regarding the formality of the situation. (International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Brown, 2007:132)
2.2 Definitions of Language Learning Strategies (LLS)
Styles, tactics and strategies are three different terms that could be used interchangeably. However, the current research is about LLS.
Brown (2007) clearly explains how both strategies and styles affect language learning process. According to him, styles are characteristics of individual that makes him different from others. They are very personal, and "…vary across individuals" (p. 119).
Nunan (1999) has defined the language learning strategies as "the mental and communicative procedures that learners deploy to learn a second language". (p. 55)
Tactics and strategies are sometimes used interchangeably. According to Oxford (1990), tactics are the tools that are used to achieve the success of strategies. Oxford adds that both terms have some basic characteristics like planning, competition, conscious manipulation, and movement toward the goal.
Wenden and Rubin (1987) defined the LLS as "any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information" (p.19) (www.edutechwiki.)
Richards and Platt (1992) argued that "learning strategies are intentional behavior and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn, or remember new information" (p.209). (http://iteslj.org/)
Learning strategies were also illustrated as "special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information" (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990:1).
The definition that appears in the literature and is cited frequently by many researchers in the LLS field is the one given by Oxford (1990). She defines language learning strategies as "specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations" (p. 8). It is, indeed, a reflection of what the learner intends to do and the specific actions he can take. She also, prominently, includes how context plays a crucial role in the language learning process.
Ellis (1997) describes LLS as particular approaches that learners use trying to learn a L2. Ellis divides the LLS into two main categories: a) behavioral, like repeating the new words aloud in order to help learners remember them, b) mental, like using the linguistic or situational context to infer the meaning of a new word. For Ellis all strategies are problem oriented, the learners resort to them when they face language problem, like not being able to remember words that they had memorized. Ellis says that learners are always aware of the strategies they use. The researcher does not agree on this statement, despite the fact that LLS is a conscious process, he believes that not all learners are aware of the LLS they use.
Metacognive, cognitive and socioaffective are the main strategies that learners deploy in order to learn L2. Brown (2007) describes metacognitive strategies as planning for learning, thinking about the learning process while it is taking place, self production or comprehension monitoring, and eventually evaluating ones learning.
According to him cognitive strategies are "…more limited to specific learning tasks and involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself"(p. 134). While employing cognitive strategies the learner is well aware of the action and its effect on learning.
Last but not least, the socioaffective strategies are about the L2 learners' social interaction with others like asking questions, finding opportunities to talk to native speakers and interacting with colleagues.
2.2.1 Importance of language learning strategies
Bridging the gap between students' learning styles and teachers' teaching styles will be a powerful means to guide students toward successful learning.
2.2.2. Features of language learning strategies
Brown (2007) and Chamot (2005) divide LLS into two main categories, learning strategies and communication strategies. They consider learning strategies to be related to input procedures such as processing, storage, and retrieval. On the other hand communication strategies are pertaining to output such as expressing meaning and how messages are delivered to others.
Oxford (1990) stresses that LLS are broadly oriented toward a goal which is communicative competence, she refrains from mentioning anything about communication strategies. She would rather divide the LLS into direct and indirect.
The researcher believes that LLS is a set of tools that helps the development of the four language skills, reading, writing, speaking and listening, which eventually lead to the communication competence. Supporting Oxford's idea, the researcher has listed below what she has described as main features of LLS:
Contribute to main goal, communicative competence.
Allow learners to become more self-directed.
Expand the role of teachers.
Are problem-oriented.
Are specific actions taken by the learner.
Involves many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive.
Support learning both directly and indirectly.
Are not always observable.
Are often conscious.
Can be taught.
Are flexible.
Are influenced by variety of factors. (Oxford, 1990: 9)
2.2.3 Classification of language learning strategies
Joan Rubin is considered as pioneer of the LLS subject. She wrote her book "What the -Good Language Learner- Can teach Us" in 1975 which became the source of debate among different linguists and psychologists who were concerned about the role of learner in learning L2. (Cohen and Macaro 2007)
Rubin (1981) has classified the LLS into two main groupings, this classification has been presented by O'Malley and Chamot (1990). Rubin has classified the LLS into direct and indirect LLS.
Clarification/verification, monitoring, memorization, guessing/inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning and practice are among the LLS that directly contribute to language learning. While creating opportunities for practice and production tricks are among the LLS that indirectly affect learning. (O'Malley and Chamot 1990, Cohen and Macaro 2007)
Another classification of LLS has been made by Stern (1992), who has classified the LLS into five main categories:
Management and Planning Strategies
decide what commitment to make to language learning
set himself reasonable goals
decide on an appropriate methodology, select appropriate resources, and monitor progress,
evaluate his achievement in the light of previously determined goals and expectation
Cognitive Strategies
Clarification / Verification
Guessing / Inductive Inferencing
Deductive Reasoning
Practice
Memorization
Monitoring
Communicative - Experiential Strategies
Interpersonal Strategies
Affective Strategies (www.edutechwiki.)
Concerning the classification of LLS, Oxford says that: "major varieties of language learning strategies are cognitive, mnemonic, metacognitive, compensatory (or speaking and writing), affective and social". (Carter and Nunan, 2001:167)
Oxford has broadly divided the LLS in to direct and indirect strategies. However, in the following diagram she explains that direct and indirect strategies are supporting each other for the sake of successful language learning. (Oxford 1990)
Memory strategies (Direct)
Cognitive strategies (direct)
Social strategies (Indirect)
Compensation strategies (Direct)
Affective strategies (Indirect)
Metacognitive strategies (Indirect)
Interrelationships between direct and indirect strategies and among the six category groups (Oxford, 1990:15)
Due to the importance of the classification and sub classification of the LLS that has been made by Oxford (1990), the researcher presents the full diagram.
l. Memory Strategies
ll. Cognitive Strategies
Direct Strategies
lll. Compensation Strategies
LEARNING STRATEGIES
l. Metacognitive Strategies
ll. Affective Strategies
lll. Social Strategies
Indirect Strategies
Diagram of the strategy System
Oxford has classified the two main strategies into sub strategies as they have been clarified in the following table:
DIRECT STRATEGIES
Memory strategies
Creating mental linkage
Applying images and sounds
Reviewing well
Employing action
Cognitive strategies
Practicing
Receiving and sending messages
Analyzing and reasoning
Creating structure of input and output
Compensation strategies
Guessing intelligently
Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing
Diagram of the strategy system showing two classes, six groups, and 19 sets
INDIRECT STRATEGIES
Metacognitive strategies
Centering your learning
Arranging and planning your learning
Evaluating your learning
Affective strategies
Lowering your anxiety
Encouraging yourself
Taking your emotional temperature
Social strategies
Asking questions
Cooperating with others
Emphasizing with others
DIRECT STRATEGIES
(Memory, Cognitive, and Compensation)
Memory strategies
Creating mental linkages
Grouping
Associating/elaborating
Placing new words into content
Applying images and sounds
Using imagery
Semantic mapping
Using keywords
Representing sounds in memory
Reviewing well
Structures reviewing
Employing action
Using physical response or sensation
Using mechanical techniques
Cognitive strategies
Practicing
Repeating
Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems
Recognizing and using formulas and patterns
Recombining
Practicing naturastically
Receiving and sending messages
Getting the idea quickly
Using resources for receiving and sending messages
Analyzing and reasoning
Reasoning deductively
Analyzing expressions
Analyzing contrastively (across languages)
Translating
Transferring
Creating structure for input and output
Taking notes
Summarizing
highlighting
Compensation strategies
guessing intelligently:
using linguistic clues
using other clues
overcoming limitations in speaking and writing:
switching to the mother tongue
getting help
using mime or gesture
avoiding communication partially or totally
selecting the topic
adjusting or approximating the messages
coining words
using a circumlocution or synonym
INDIRECT STRATEGIES
(Metacognitive, Affective, and Social)
Metacognitive strategies
centering your learning:
overviewing and linking with already known material
paying attention
delaying speech production to focus on listening
arranging and planning your learning:
finding out about language learning
organizing
setting goals and objectives
identifying the purpose of a language task (purposeful listening/reading/speaking/writing)
planning for a language task
seeking practice opportunities
evaluating your learning:
self-monitoring
self-evaluating
Affective strategies
Lowering your anxiety:
Using progressive relaxation
Using music
Using laughter
Encouraging yourself:
Making positive statements
Taking risks wisely
Rewarding yourself
Taking your emotional temperature:
Listening to your body
Using a checklist
Writing a language learning diary
Discussing your feelings with someone else
Social strategies
Asking questions:
Asking for clarification or verification
Asking for correction
Cooperating with others:
Cooperating with peers
Cooperating with proficient users of the new language
Emphasizing with others:
Developing cultural understanding
Becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings
Depending on Strern's classification of LLS, Naiman et al. (1978) have classified the LLS into five main schemes: active task approach, realization of language as a system, realization of language as a means of communication and interaction, management of affective demand and monitoring L2 performance. (O'Malley and Chamot 1990, Cohen and Macaro 2007)
Brown (2007) O'Malley and Anna Chamot have classified LLS into three main categories; metacognitive, cognitive and socioaffective.
"While learning strategies deal with the receptive domain of intake, memory, storage, and recall, communication strategies pertain to the employment of verbal or non-verbal mechanisms for the productive communication of information. " (Brown, 2007:137)
The following table has been initiated by O'Malley et al (1985b) and has been mentioned in Brown (2007). The authors have made distinction between learning strategies and communication strategies.
Table 1 (Learning strategies)
Learning strategy
Description
Metcognitive strategies
Advance organizers
Making a general but comprehensive preview of the organizing concept or principle in an anticipated learning activity.
Directed attention
Deciding in advance to attend in general to a learning task and to ignore irrelevant distracters.
Selective attention
Deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of language input or situational details that will cue the attention of language input.
Self-management
Understanding the conditions that help one learn and arranging for the presence of those conditions.
Functional planning
Planning for and rehearsing linguistic components necessary to carry out an upcoming language task.
Self-monitoring
Correcting one's speech for accuracy in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, or for appropriateness related to the setting or to people who are present.
Delayed production
Consciously deciding to postpone speaking in order to learn initially through listening comprehension.
Self-evaluation
Checking then outcome of one's own language learning against an internal measure of completeness and accuracy.
Cognitive Strategies
Repetition
Imitating a language model, including overt practice and silent rehearsal.
Resourcing
Using target language reference materials.
Translation
Using the first language as a base for understanding and/or producing the second language.
Grouping
Reordering or reclassifying, and perhaps labeling, the material to be learned base on common attributes.
Note taking
Writing down the main idea, important points, outline, or summery of information presented orally or in writing
Deduction
Consciously applying rules to produce or understand the second language.
Recombination
Constructing a meaningful sentence or larger language sequence by combining known elements in a new way.
Imagery
Relating new information to visual concepts in memory via familiar, easily retrievable visualizations, phrases, or locations.
Auditory representation
Retention of the sound or a similar sound for a word, phrase, or longer language sequence.
Keyword
Remembering a new word in the second language by (1) identifying a familiar word in the first language that sounds like or otherwise resembles the new word and (2) generating easily recalled images of some relationship between the new word and the familiar word
Contextualization
Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful language sequence.
Elaboration
Relating new information to other concepts in memory.
Transfer
Using previously acquired linguistic and/or conceptual knowledge to facilitate a new language learning task.
Inferencing
Using available information to guess meanings of new items, predict outcomes, or fill in missing information.
Socioaffective strategies
Cooperation
Working with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pool information, or model a language activity.
Question for clarification
Asking the teacher or other native speakers for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation, and/or examples.
Table 2 (Communication strategies)
Avoidance strategies
Message abandonment: leaving a message unfinished because of language difficulties.
Topic avoidance: avoiding topic areas or concepts that pose language difficulties.
Compensatory strategies
Circumlocution: describing or exemplifying the target object of action (e.g., the thing you open bottles with for corkscrew)
Approximation: using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible (e.g., ship for sailboat)
Use of all-purpose words: extending a general, empty lexical item to contexts where specific words as lacking (e.g., the overuse of thing, stuff, wht-do-you-call-it, thingie)
Word coinage: creating nonexisting L2 word base on supposed rule (e.g., vegetarianist for vegetarian)
Prefabricated patterns: using memorized stocked phrases, usually for "survival" purposes (e.g., where is the ______ or Comment allez-vous? Where the morphological components are not known to the learner)
Nonlinguistic signals: mime, gesture, facial expression, or sound imitation
Literal translation: translating literally a lexical item, idiom, compound word, or structure from L1 to L2
Foreignizing: using a L1 word by adjusting it to L2 phonology (i.e., with a L2 pronounciaiton) and/or morphology (e.g., adding to it a L2 suffix)
Code-switching: using a L1 word with L1 pronunciation or L3 word with L3 pronunciation while speaking in L2
Appeal for help: asking for aid form the interlocutor either directly (e.g., what do you call…..?) or indirectly (e.g., rising intonation, pause, eye contact, puzzled expression)
Stalling or time gaining strategies: using fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think (e.g., well, now let's see, uh, as a matter of fact)
2.3 Language teaching
During the first half of the last century, learning L2 became an important issue in the world. That was due to several factors, such as military purposes, trade, educations…etc. until 1970s the teachers were considered as the main factors of learning. The role of the learners was not taken into consideration. "Teaching is the work that a teacher does in helping students to learn". (Collins, English language dictionary, 1990:1499), this is how teaching is been mentioned in the Collins dictionary. As the definition elrarifies the role of the teachers are always crucial for learning, but, it should not undermine the role of the learners. Lindsay and Knight (2006) describe relationship between learning and teaching as complicated and often not direct. "…learners often don't learn what we teach and equally often learn what we don't teach." (Lindsay with Knight, 2006:4). According to the statement of Lindsay with Knight, the learners are active; they find their ways in learning, but with the guidance of the teachers. It is not conditioned that the teachers should say everything about something, they would rather work on pushing the learners to think of being active rather than passive.
Cook (1991) underlines that all successful teaching depends on learning, and she considers the proof for teaching is its outcome, which is learning. It is obvious that teaching and learning are interwoven, teaching is the input and the output is the learning. There are different language teaching methods; grammar translation helps the students be good at grammar. Communicative teaching method, enables the students be good at communication. "More information about how learners actually learn helps the teacher to make any method more effective" (Cook, 1991). Cook (1991) says that the reasons of L2 teaching vary from one country to another and from one period to another, which depends on the overall educational goal. She has divided the language teaching goals into three categories:
1) Local goals - foster an L2 within a society:
a. assimilationist language teaching minority speakers learn the majority language and relinquish L1
b. transitional language teaching: minority speakers learn to function in majority language for some purposes without giving up L1
c. language maintenance and bilingual language teaching: minority speakers learn to function in both languages
2) International goals - foster an L2 for use outside the society:
a. careers that require L2
b. higher education
c. access to research and information
d. travel
3) Individual goals - develop qualities in the learner rather than language per se:
a. understanding of foreign cultures
b. understanding language itself
c. cognitive training
d. general educational values
e. learning L2 as an academic subject
f. L2 learning as social change (Ellis, 1991: 112)
2.3.1 How do teachers help learning?
Traditionally teachers are considered to be the authority in the classrooms and could force the students to learn. With the emergence of the learner-centered learning method, the roles have teachers slightly changed, from the authority to the guidance of the learners.
"teachers traditionally expect to be viewed as authority figures, identified with roles like parent, instructor, director, manager, judge, leader, evaluator, controller and even doctor, who must "cure" the ignorance of the students." (Oxford, 1990:10)
Effective teaching have several characteristics, that have been listed by Blum (as mentioned in Richards and Renandya 2002) following a study that he conducted.
Instruction is guided by a preplanned curriculum.
There are high expectations for student learning.
Students are carefully oriented to lessons.
Instruction is clear and focused.
Learning progress is monitored closely.
When students do not understand they are re-taught.
Class time is used for learning.
There are smooth and efficient classroom routines.
Instructional groups formed in the classroom fit instructional needs.
Standards of classroom behavior are high.
Personal interactions between teachers and students are positive.
Incentives and rewards for students are used to promote excellence. (p.21)
2.3.2 Teachers' consideration for learners' strategies
LLS and teaching methods and language learning strategies have a great effect on the learning process. Learning strategies have attracted the attention of many researchers such as Nunan (1991), O'Malley and Chamot (1990) and Oxford (1990). Most of them generally agree that language learning strategies are specific actions, behaviours, or techniques that learners use to improve their second or L2 performance. Research into the good language learning strategies also reveals a number of positive strategies so that such strategies can also be used by less effective language learners trying to become more effective in language learning. Linguists such as Oxford (1990), and Cohen (1998) have suggested that learners might be able to learn target language effectively by the use of language learning strategies.
In describing how to facilitate L2 acquisition, the goal of teaching learning strategies is to facilitate learners to become independent learners with the dexterity and wisdom to use strategies appropriately in a variety of contexts (Anstrom, 1998). Teachers still play an important role in guiding students to selfâ€directed learning and to evaluate their own processes even though strategy training aims to encourage students take control of their own learning. A teacher' s first act should be to identify the students' learning strategies so that instruction can be adapted accordingly (Hosenfield, 1977).
Moreover, a teacher should conduct training on learning strategies and help learners become more independent (Oxford, 1990) . Teachers need to direct learners on when and how to use strategies from the beginning. When learners become independent and can use strategies appropriately, teachers still need to evaluate their strategy use and provide additional support. In other words, teachers play a central role in language learning strategy instruction.
It is of vital importance that teachers take into consideration the LLS issue while teaching, and make themselves acquainted with the LLS and apply them in the classroom. "The study of learning strategies is of potential value to language teachers." (Ellis, 1997:78)
If teachers would identify the crucial strategies that help learning, students could be trained to use them and become successful language learners. (Ellis 1997)
The new trend of teaching is that teachers should identify the strategies that students use while learning, moreover, teachers should conduct training on LLS and help students become independent learners. (Oxford, 1990, O'Malley and Chamot, 1990 )
The results of the studies on strategy description and categorization have found their implications in language classrooms in helping teachers accelerate the language learning of their students. If learners are to be in a position to be made aware of different strategies that can assist them in the process of learning, they should be familiar with the strategies that are available. In other words, if students have to make their strategy selection, they have to know about the process of making this selection, because "informed selection of strategies presupposes knowledge of strategies and knowledge of strategies presupposes instruction" (Nunan, 1991, p.179). With the expansion of language learning strategy instruction research, the question to be answered is whether training on strategies would result in improvement in language learners. A large body of research supports the positive effects of training on strategies in language learning performance (Carrell, Pharis, & Liberto, 1989; Carrell, 1998; Oxford 1990a, 1990b, 1996; Oxfordet al., 1990). Cottrell (1999) claims that through practice and instruction, learners' use of strategies can be automatized. [-4-]
It has been suggested that learning strategy instruction may help learners in three ways: firstly, learning strategies instruction can help students to become better learners, secondly, skill in using learning strategies assists them in becoming independent and confident learners, and finally, they become more motivated as they begin to understand the relationship between their use of strategies and success in learning languages (Chamot & Kupper, 1989; Chamot & O'Malley, 1994).
To ratify this premise, an abundant body of research has been carried out in recent years.. O'Malley and Chamot (1990), and Oxford (1990a) have found that the use of learning strategies in classroom instruction is fundamental to successful learning. Supporting their findings, Oxford et al. (1990, p. 210) in their studies of six cases found that "Strategy training can enhance both the process of language learning (the strategies or behaviors learners use and the affective elements involved) and the product of language learning (changes in students' language performance)." They also claimed that the training has some positive effects on the teacher:
Teachers who use strategy training often become enthusiastic about their roles as facilitators of classroom learning. Strategy training makes them more learner oriented and more aware of their students needs. Teachers also begin to scrutinize how their teaching techniques relate (or fail to relate) to their students' learning strategies and sometimes teachers choose to alter their instructional patterns as a result of such scrutiny. (Oxford et al., p.210)
Chapter Three:
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Analyzing the vision of the English Department
3.2 Analyzing the mission statement of the English Department
3.3 Analyzing English Department curriculum/College of languages
3.4 Students observation
Chapter Four:
Data collection and data analysis:
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Data collection
4.1.1 Teachers' questionnaire
4.1.2 Students' questionnaire
4.1.3 Population and samples
4.1.4 Validity
4.1.5 Statistical means
4.2 Data analysis and discussion
Chapter 5
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendations
5.3 Suggestions for further study
Bibliography
Appendices
Abstract in Arabic
Abstract in Kurdish
Miqdad Ali Aziz
MA Student in Applied Linguistics
Salahadin University
College of languages
English department
Mob. 0750 445 48 79
Email: [email protected]
Supervisor:
Assistant Professor
Dr Suhayla Hameed Majeed
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THE GOOD LANGUAGE LEARNER
According to Joan Rubin
The good language learner
• Is a willing and accurate guesser
• Has a strong drive to communicate
• Is uninhibited
• Attends to form
• Practices by seeking out conversation
• Monitors his or her own speech and the speech of others
• Attends to meaning
According to David Stern
The good language learner:
• Has a personal learning style or positive learning strategies
• Has an active approach to the learning task
• Has a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language and empathy with its speakers
• Has technical know-how about how to tackle a language
• Has strategies of experimentation and planning with the object of developing the new language into an ordered system and of revising this system progressively
• Is consistently searching for meaning
• Is willing to practice
• Is willing to use the language in real communication
• Has self-monitoring ability and critical sensitivity to language use
• Is able to develop the target language more and more as a separate reference system and is able to learn to think in it
According to Rod Ellis
The good language learner will:
• Be able to avoid developing negative anxiety and inhibitions in response to the group dynamics of the learning context
• Seek out all opportunities to use the target language
• Make maximum use of the opportunities afforded to practice listening to and responding to speech in L2 addressed to him or her or to others, attending to meaning rather than form
• Supplement learning derived from direct contact with speakers of the L2 with learning derived from study techniques (such as making vocabulary lists) and involving attention to form
• Possess sufficient analytic skills to perceive, categorize, and store the linguistic features of the L2, and also to monitor errors
• Possess a strong reason for learning the L2 (which may reflect an integrative or an instrumental motivation) and also develop a strong 'task motivation', responding positively to the learning tasks chosen or provided.
• Be prepared to experiment by taking risks, even if they make him or her appear foolish
• Be capable of adapting to different learning conditions
Some results from SLA Research, (according to Archibald):
1. Communicative competence is a complex construction; native speakers have very complex knowledge and abilities. Hence the learner's task is enormously complex.
2. Adults and adolescents can acquire a second language.
3. L2 learner language (interlanguage) is governed by a system. As a result, the learner's errors are systematic.
4. A learner's interlanguage is constrained by certain, as yet unspecified, linguistic universals (perhaps Universal Grammar).
5. Knowledge of language is not the whole story. The learner requires both knowledge and ability (or control).
6. Acquisition may fossilize when learners meet their communicative needs.
7. Context and content facilitate second language learning (as we see in content language teaching such as French Immersion).
8. Instruction can make a difference. It can affect the rate of second language learning. How it affects the route is less clear.
9. Focus on form within a communicative context leads to improved accuracy in the L2 learners.
10. Modified input and interaction (teacher talk and foreigner talk) can be helpful to the L2 learner (it can lead to comprehensible input).
11. There is a great deal of individual variation in second language acquisition. This justifies an eclectic L2 pedagogy.
12. A well developed L1 is crucial to succeeding in an L2 school (Heritage Language Programmes; Deaf Children)
With permission: Dr. John Archibald
Professor and Head
Department of Linguistics
University of Calgary (http://www.fiplv.org/)
