Britain was heavily involved in Kenyas political development throughout the 20th century. Following the Omani-Arab colonization of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts during the late 1700s and early 1800s, several European countries began to show an interest in the region, including Germany and Britain. Stimulated by a desire to abolish the slave trade, the German competition, and a demand for products such as ivory and cloves, the British East Africa Company was set up in 1888 to administer and develop the territory in East Africa. The British government eventually established direct rule in 1895 through the East Africa Protectorate , after it became clear that the East Africa Company did not have the financial capabilities to handle the region. Several key developments followed this protectorate; the fertile highlands of Kenya were opened up to white European settlers, and the ensuing forced labour of native Africans stirred racial tensions. These tensions were further heightened when over 30,000 British Indian workers were brought in to the construction of a national railway infrastructure, bringing another distinct ethnic group into the political mix. Legislation and policy was shamelessly favouring the European settlers, although after the First World War the hardship faced by East Africa caused increasing discontent among the native Africans, and the Indians, with their greater economic strength, were also demanding more of a political voice. Progress for the Africans was slow; in 1944 the first African representative was included in the legislative council in Nairobi. After this the native people of the country began to gain momentum they made up 95% of the population and surely deserved a much greater say in how it was run. By 1951 they had eight representatives on the Nairobi council, but this council had very limited influence and the colonial governors still held all of the power. The Kikuyu Central Association, a political protest movement led by Jomo Kenyatta, had previously been campaigning energetically yet peacefully, but began to grow frustrated by their lack of impact. In 1952 the country reached breaking point, and there was an outbreak of violence against the British colonial rule. Supported and perhaps even orchestrated by many members of the Kikuyu, the Mau-Mau uprising lasted throughout the 1950s, although Jomo Kenyatta (despite denying involvement) was jailed between 1953 and 1961. Thousands of Mau Mau protesters were killed (although there were very few European lives lost), but the uprising certainly had a profound impact on the political landscape; in a conference in London in 1960 a majority of the seats in legislative council were given to Africans, and the first African political parties were formed. Despite still being imprisoned, Jomo Kenyatta was elected as leader of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), and he led the negotiations for independence in London in 1962. In 1963 KANU won a majority, Kenyatta was elected Prime Minister, and in December Kenya became independent. A year later Kenya became a Republic with Kenyatta as President, an outcome which was somewhat unsettling for the white community the plantations which they formerly owned were broken up and given back to the farmers. Despite some opposition parties existing initially, it wasnt long until Kenya became a one party state. There were allegations that Kenyattas rule clearly favoured the Kikuyu people, but overall he ruled the country fairly. After his death in 1978, he was succeeded from within his own party by Daniel Arap Moi. Moi was also fairly intolerant of opposition, but by 1992 buckled under pressure to hold multi-party elections. Despite increasing internal conflict, Moi and KANU won the 1992 and 1997 elections (although obstructing the press may well have helped them on their way). However, in 2002 Moi was constitutionally prevented from standing and his successor, Uhuru Kenyatta, (Jomos son), was defeated by the National Rainbow Coalition. Unfortunately, crime and violence continued to rise, and allegations of corruption and vote rigging in the 2007 elections only made things worse. Tensions rose and there were demands for a recount, with an eventual coalition being formed. A diplomatic compromise was welcomed; Raila Odinga was appointed Prime Minister, over forty years after the office had initially been abolished, and his rival Mwai Kibaki retained the presidency.
1.3 Economic Development
An early key to Kenyas economic development was the construction of the rail infrastructure, commissioned by the British occupants. This railway opened up the interior of Kenya, and allowed the white settlers to occupy the fertile highlands; the agriculture in Kenya was previously used for subsistence and not export purposes, and the British colonial administration wanted to see greater economic development here to justify the building of the railways. The British and European settlers began to grow wealthy by farming tea and coffee, but the poor treatment of the African labourers led to a mass exodus to the cities.
In the first ten years after independence, Kenyas economy grew at an annual average of 6.6% per year. Initially, subsistence agriculture and the barter of goods had formed the basis of the economy, but with new democracy established a mixed economy was encouraged, with both public investment and private incentives being important factors in Kenyas success. Agriculture was also continuing to grow, with significant income being brought in through exporting tea and coffee. However, Kenyas fortunes changed in the mid 1970s, with a combination of the oil crisis, population increases and inward looking policies affecting economic performance. By the early 1990s Kenya was in real trouble, with growth stagnating, the agriculture industry shrinking, and inflation reaching 100% in 1993. The government had no choice but to initiate major reforms, and with the help of the IMF and the World Bank, the government removed price controls, foreign exchange controls and import licensing, increased privatisation and introduced more conservative fiscal and monetary policies. Following this GDP growth began to increase again, and despite further challenges Kenya remained in fairly good economic shape, particularly after anti-corruption measures increased transparency. The economy has been growing in the 21st century and further upturns are expected. There is still a reliance on the agriculture industry but there are now significant contributions from tourism, manufacturing, financial services and the IT sector.
1.4 Educational Development
Before 1900 education in Kenya was limited, but at the beginning of the 20th century a number of mission schools were set up, and the number of Kenyans being exposed to education began to increase. However, throughout the first half of this century opportunities were still non-existent for many even though there were more schools being established. After independence in 1963 there were campaigns for primary education to be made free. Previously education had been based on the colonial system, but in 1967 Kenya formed the East African Community along with Uganda and Tanzania, all of whom adopted a single system of education using the 7-4-2-3 system (7 years primary school, 4 years secondary school, 2 years high school and 3 years university). This system was broadly unchanged until 1985 under President Moi, where the 8-4-4 system was introduced (8 years primary school, 4 years secondary school, 4 years university). Public examinations were taken at the end of primary and secondary school, the KCPE (Kenyan Certificate of Primary Education) and KCSE (Kenyan Certificate of Secondary Education). Fees for primary schools were abolished in the 1970s but they returned in the 80s as a result of cost sharing measures between the government and its citizens. However, in 2003 primary school became free again, and many who had previously been unable to enrol due to financial difficulty were now able to attend primary school. However, secondary school is still not free and many students have been forced to drop out early or abandon secondary school altogether. Less than 50% of students in Kenya complete secondary school, and this is a particular problem when many of Kenyas most talented future workers are unable to finish their education due to financial restraints.
The first Kenyan university was established in 1970, and there have since been twenty-nine more opened. Seven of the universities are public and the other twenty-three are private. Government grants are available to allow disadvantaged students to attend university, but this is not as useful as it might seem with many of the poorer children unable to get through school in the first place. Although the quality of education in Kenya is improving, work needs to be done on improving opportunities for all.
1.5 British Impact on Development
Britain has been intervening in Kenyas development for over a century. The colonisation and political control of Kenya between 1895 and 1963 could certainly be said to have had a mixed impact. The Kenyan economy accrued some benefits, particularly with regard to the railways built in the early 1900s. The British may also have alerted Kenya to the value of exporting tea and coffee, although the way in which they managed the farming in the earlier years of their occupation was unfair and rightly caused resentment from the natives, a situation which would not have led to productivity being maximised, and the imposition of western agricultural methods may not have been best suited to the region. Thankfully Britain granted political independence in 1963 and allowed Kenyans to more actively participate in the development of their own country.
However, Britain and other countries still contributed to Kenyas development through giving aid. This will be discussed in greater depth later on, but it is certainly important for developing nations such as Kenya to receive aid, as this stimulates the economy and creates jobs. In addition to this the investment of British firms in Kenya has been beneficial to the countrys development. There are a number of large growth industries in Kenya including IT and financial services, and the investment of British firms in these areas will not only bring added expertise and knowledge to Kenya, but also financial reward for the companies that invest. The more that we engage with Kenya, the greater the benefits are likely to be for both nations.
2.0 Main Body (3000-4500 words)
2.1 Impact of aid (donor relations)
Kenya has received significant aid from other countries since it became independent in 1963, in increasing amounts. The average annual aid has increased from US$205 million in the 1970s to over US$1 billion in the 1990s, although there were two major aid freezes in 1992 and 1997 as a result of Kenya failing to adhere to certain fiscal rules. Nonetheless, Kenya has certainly been equipped by this aid to tackle many developmental obstacles, but it is unclear whether or not the aid has always ended up in the right place.
Foreign aid can help to stimulate a developing economy, as it obviously gives the government more money. This can supplement the low savings, small export earnings and thin tax revenue, so that the government has more to spend on development projects. However, there are arguments asserting that aid has a minimal impact on development. Many of these revolve around aid fungibility. If something is fungible it means it can be substituted for something else of the same type. When applying this to foreign aid an example can provide greater clarity: if the government that aid is being supplied to are currently spending money on Project A (which the donor approves of) and Project B (which they do not approve of), the donor country can give them money to put towards Project A. However, the government that receives the aid can put this money towards Project A but reduce their original spending on it and divert funds to Project B. Thus the donor country is indirectly financing the project they disapprove of. The aid replaces the money the government was previously spending. The real question is, does the aid given to Kenya complement government spending on development projects, or does it replace that money and allow extra spending elsewhere?
Through the 1970s, 80s and 90s, foreign aid to Kenya increased as a percentage of GDP. Conversely, expenditure on development as a percentage of GDP fell. The UK was, for a while, contributing the majority of the aid, although in the 1980s many others significantly increased their donations. However, research has shown that there is a strong positive relationship between government expenditure and foreign aid in Kenya, suggesting that foreign aid isnt being used for tax relief.
Foreign aid budgets undoubtedly have a role to play; particularly in terms of humanitarian aid. Eliminating unnecessary poverty such as child mortality, lack of access to clean water and people living in slums is something that richer countries should feel obligated to do. However, developmental aid seems to have an unreliable track record in terms of actually bringing about economic growth. It is important that aid is directed towards targets where it is required, rather
The issue of aid fungibility can be negated if the aid is given directly to appropriate projects rather than to the Kenyan government to allocate as they wish. For example, Aiducation pays money directly to Kenyan schools so that efficiency is maximised and the funds reach their intended target. By selecting the intended target of the aid (high potential children who dont have the money to attend school) and ensuring that the aid goes directly to that target, the aid can have the impact desired.
2.2 Major growth industries (and their impact on development)
Agriculture in Kenya dominates the economy, and it is expected to continue growing in 2010. In 1980, 80% of working Kenyans made their living through farming, and although this figure fell below 75% in 2006 (and will probably continue to fall) there can be no doubt that this is still a major industry for Kenya. However, despite pulling in so many workers, agriculture only tends to account for around 25% of GDP, and only 18% of wage employment. This is partly down to the fact that around half of agriculture in Kenya is non-marketed subsistence production, and although it only brings in a quarter of the economys GDP, agriculture accounts for 50% of export revenue, largely helped by tea, coffee and horticultural produce, which are the main growth areas. Despite its undoubted value at the moment, it is possible that agriculture will not be a huge growth industry in the future; only 15% of Kenyas land is fertile enough for farm use, and much of this is not high quality land. No doubt there will be continuing attempts to innovate and agriculture will remain a large part of the economy, but it may be that it is other sectors that achieve the really high growth needed to improve the GDP per capita and development ratings in Kenya. In fact, Kenya would be wise to rely on agriculture less, as unpredictable production downturns have been known to arise from natural disasters such as drought, and this leaves the economy in an unstable position and urgent aid tends to be required.
The manufacturing industry in Kenya has struggled to thrive, and despite initial expansion of this sector after independence, growth has been fairly stagnant since the 1980s. Mainly concentrated around larger urban centres such as Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu, manufacturing is dominated by food processing industries and the fabrication of consumer goods. However, there is an expanding informal sector which is engaging in much small scale manufacturing. Despite issues with high energy costs/energy shortages, the cheap dumping of imports and problems with the transport infrastructure, the turn of the 21st century has seen more encouraging results from the manufacturing industry. The U.S. Governments African Growth and Opportunity Act has undoubtedly played a part in this, as have favourable tax measures including the removal of duties on capital equipment and other raw materials. Kenya is the most industrially developed country in East Africa, and around half of the investment in the industrial sector comes from abroad, and half of this from the UK; the willingness of UK firms to invest and engage with Kenya is no doubt encouraging greater business philanthropy, and a continuation of this could bring rewards for Kenya and the British firms.
The services sector in Kenya contributes over 60% of GDP, and this is dominated by tourism. This industry has been growing since independence and is a huge source of foreign exchange. Security problems hit the tourism industry in the 1990s, but substantial efforts to reverse the negative publicity of this have led to a strong revival of the tourism industry in Kenya over the past few years. Another driving force behind the success of the services sector is the financial services it is certainly the leading East African country in this industry. Some of the large banks are partially government owned, such as the Kenyan Commercial Bank and the National Bank of Kenya, but there is again evidence of foreign owned companies being successful, such as Barclays and Standard Chartered. The Nairobi stock exchange is ranked 4th in Africa, and there is certainly great potential in any investments in the financial services in Kenya.
There are a number of industries with huge potential for growth in Kenya, and foreign investment (particularly from the UK) has been important in helping Kenya to move these industries forward. However, it is important that Kenya is producing enough skilled workers if these industries are to continue to grow; without the human capital being present in Kenya the foreign investment cannot have the desired impact.
2.3 Vision 2030 (effectiveness?)
The Kenyan Government initiated Vision 2030 so that Kenya might achieve greater economic development. The overarching vision is that Kenya will be a globally competitive and prosperous nation by the year 2030. It is based on three pillars economic, social and political. The economic vision is that Kenya will maintain strong economic growth of 10% per annum, (when the vision was launched growth was only around 4%). The social vision is of a just, secure environment with social equity, and the political vision is of a fair democracy that protects the rights and freedoms of all Kenyans.
Kenya Vision 2030 is anchored on several foundations, including macroeconomic stability, enhanced equity and wealth opportunities for the poor, infrastructure, science, technology and innovation, security and human resources development. Vision 2030 is certainly ambitious and it is sensible that it has been based in such firm foundations; macroeconomic stability is essential if the material wellbeing of the country is to be improved and poverty reduced; science, technology and innovation will be crucial for producing new jobs, improving efficiency and productivity; the poor must have opportunities to participate in society and make better lives for themselves; Kenyas human capital must be improved if they want their industries to grow, their politicians to rule effectively, their doctors to save lives. All of these foundations are admirable, but we must also look at how Kenya plans to achieve all of this.
After much analysis, six key sectors of the Kenyan economy were identified to deliver the 10% annual growth rate required. These sectors are agriculture, tourism, manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, financial services and business process outsourcing. Kenya Vision 2030 then goes into detail outlining how each of these can achieve the desired growth. This paper will not investigate these details in any great depth, but the Vision 2030 plan is definitely a comprehensive one. A quick run through of the tourism section would look like this: an analysis of the current status of the tourism industry in Kenya; an exploration of the challenges and opportunities for the tourism industry (including infrastructure, marketing, security); a clear set of goals for 2030; a clear set of goals for 2012 (the end of the first five year plan); an examination of products that will need to be developed by the tourism industry if they are to reach their goals (coastal products, safari products, niche products, business tourism products); an analysis of other factors affecting tourism (security, marketing, training of staff). There is a clear plan for Kenya to follow in each of the six key economic sectors identified.
There are also detailed run-throughs of the necessary steps within the boundaries of the political and social pillars. The political vision also focuses on several strategic areas: rule of law; electoral and political processes; democracy and public service delivery; transparency and accountability; security, peace-building and conflict management. These are not explored in as much depth as the economic areas, but there are still strategies and guidelines in place to ensure that Kenyas political future is a fair and inclusive one.
The social pillar talks about investment in the people of Kenya. There are again a number of focus areas, such as health, the environment, housing and urbanisation, sports and culture, training and education. These are all vital for a just and cohesive society, and all need to be looked at in order to bring about the highest level of social equity in society. Arguably the most important of these focus areas is education; we will look at this in greater depth, but education is an opportunity that all deserve, and it can impact the social, political and economic pillars in profound ways. In fact a quote from the paper Kenya Vision 2030, A Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya sums this up effectively: Kenya recognises that the education and training of all Kenyans is fundamental to the success of the Vision. Education equips citizens with understanding and knowledge that enables them to make informed choices about their lives and those facing Kenyan society. The education sector will, therefore, provide the skills that will be required to steer Kenyans to the economic and social goals of Vision 2030.
2.4 Impact of education (and perhaps Aiducation)
A good and fair system of education is a necessity for development in Kenya. There is a reason why education levels can so strongly sway a countrys standing in the Human Development Index the quality of an education system in a country will define the ability of the next generation to take that country forward. The strategies that Kenya has put in place for the future are all very well, but someone is going to have to implement these strategies, to ensure that all plans are carried out efficiently. Education is crucial, and yet the education sector in Kenya is currently deficient. The education sector will need significant investment if it Kenya wants to produce the human capital necessary to ensure growth in priority areas. Having said this, Kenya has been taking steps forward in recent years, and has one of the highest spending per student levels in Africa. Primary school enrolment rate in 2002 was only 70.4%, but after it was made free in 2003 enrolment grew, and had exceeded 83% by 2005. However, the figures for secondary school are less encouraging; secondary school is not free, and as a result around 50% of children in Kenya are unable to attend. Some begin their secondary education but are forced to drop out before completion due to an inability to pay fees. Many of the students with the highest potential are unable to continue with education, and this potential is lost.
Aiducation International has recognised this problem, and is attempting to deal with it. Aiducation links high potential students in Kenya with individual donors of groups from more developed countries. In November 2009 a chapter was set up in the UK, and since that time numerous children in Kenya have been sent to school. The donors, who are called AiduMakers, tend to be wealthy individuals who were themselves beneficiaries of a good quality education. This education allowed them to pursue lucrative careers, and so it is fitting that they should enable less fortunate children to have the chances they had. Aiducation has recognised that there are children in Kenya who need money for education, and people in the UK with extra disposable income; they act as an intermediary between the two. The AiduMakers provide the money that can send the AiduSeekers in Kenya to school. The AiduMakers can follow the progress of the child they sponsor through progress reports and videos on the website.
Aiducation is able to make a real difference as a charity, largely due to their four principles of unique scholarships. The first of these is efficiency; 100% of the donated money is transferred directly to school fees, as all administrative costs are currently covered by corporate sponsors. In fact, Aiducation gives the money directly to the schools themselves, to ensure that the money is used for its designed purpose. The second principle is transparency; the donation is personalised because the donor can select the student they wish to sponsor, perhaps choosing one with similar interests or career aspirations to themselves. They then receive regular progress reports so they can see the positive effects that their donation has had. The third principle is merit; the students which are put forward for sponsorship are selected based on their financial need and their potential. Aiducation wants to help those who are currently unable to afford education, but also students who have very high potential. This is not based on elitist principles; it would be fantastic if education could one day be provided for every child in Kenya. However, it has to be accepted that not everyone can currently be helped. Therefore, scholarships are provided to children who not only achieved primary school results that placed them in the top 10% of their year group, but also demonstrate a desire to give back to their community and build a better Kenya. Aiducation tries to give them a platform to do this through their fourth principle, mentoring; the scholars attend mentorship academies on an annual basis, where they can network, exchange ideas and hear inspiring speakers. These four principles are designed to give the scholarships maximum impact. They impact the lives of the scholars themselves, but hopefully one day they can impact the lives of all Kenyans as they become the next generation of talented professionals who can drive the country forward.
2.5 Importance of mentoring
Sending greater numbers of Kenyan children to school and thus providing them with an education is, in itself, a noteworthy achievement and something that will undoubtedly benefit Kenya in the future. However, in the shaping of future leaders, much learning will take place outside of the classroom. Many things can shape a persons character, and one thing that is often important in the development of someone through education or a career is mentoring. A mentor will tend to be someone older and more experienced than their mentee, most likely someone who is experienced in the area that the mentee wants to go into. The mentor can then pass their wisdom on to the mentee, guide them through situations and offer them advice on how to succeed in their desired field.
It is important that high potential students in Kenya have people to look up to and examples to follow. That is why Aiducation runs mentorship academies, where the scholars that they sponsor can gather together for around 5 days. These academies form part of the non-monetary support that Aiducation provides for their scholars in order to aid their personal development. The scholars can accrue so many benefits from these academies; not only do they get to network with and learn from each other, they are exposed to inspiring speakers who cover various important topics. The sort of areas that are covered can include business ethics, entrepreneurship, public speaking and environmental issues. There are also workshops and group activities, which allow the scholars to express their own thoughts and discuss them with others. In the most recent academy in December 2010 the Aiducation scholars split into groups and tried to indentify Kenyas major problems, before attempting to plan solutions. For now this is a hypothetical exercise, but the vision behind Aiducation is that one day these scholars will be at the tops of their respective professions, tackling these problems for real. It is so important that they can meet other like minded people at these academies, and learn from professionals who have already achieved some of the things that the scholars aspire to.
Going to school is only the first step. There is no doubt that it is a crucial step, but it is then invaluable to combine this education with some form of mentoring. This allows the children to learn in a different way, to gain experience in a different kind of atmosphere. The current generation of adults has much wisdom to impart to todays children, and it is vital that they have an outlet to do this, such as through Aiducations mentorship academies.
2.6 Relationship between East Africa and China
http://www.aercafrica.org/documents/china_africa_relations/Kenya.pdf
3.0 Conclusion (1000 words)
3.1 Education is the Solution
The positive effect that education can have is undoubtedly huge. In order for an economy to continue growing long term the long run aggregate supply must increase. This can occur through the improvement of the labour supply, the supply of capital, or the quality of technology and innovation. Education is at the heart of most of this; good education improves the quality of a countrys labour force, increasing the levels of human capital in the economy. A better educated workforce will perform more efficiently and will have more skills on offer. Furthermore, education will be crucial in bringing about greater innovation and technological improvement. These improvements will increase the productive potential of the economy. Essentially this means that the country is capable of having a greater output, provided the demand for the increased output is there. Without improving education it is difficult for the economy to expand, and increases in inflation are likely to lead to inflation and not growth. It is very important that the supply side of the economy is looked after because it reduces the risk of inflation and provides significant long term opportunities for growth and the key to improving the long run aggregate supply is education.
Kenyas development will depend on the current generation of children. They need a high quality of education if they are to maximise their impact on Kenyas future. Kenya has already outlined an impressive vision of where they want to be in 2030, but in order for this dream to be realised they need to allow their next generation of leading professionals to fulfil their potential. Not only is education important from the point of view of future professional development, it also impacts other areas of childrens lives. It allows them to interact with other people their age, it gives them confidence, and it allows to become better rounded people. The opportunity to go to school can help a child in so many ways, and this in turn can help Kenya in so many ways. The improvements to the economy have already been discussed, but education can also alter the social and political landscape of the country.
In the economic sector innovative and entrepreneurial men and woman will be required to bring about the economic growth. In the political sector wise political leaders will be required to lead the country forward with integrity. In the social sector scientists will have to solve environmental problems, doctors will have to save lives in hospitals, teachers will have to pass their knowledge to the next generation. How are these entrepreneurs, these doctors, these politicians, these scientists, these lawyers going to be produced? Through an education system that allows them to fulfil their potential.
3.2 Aiducation is the Solution
Education creates opportunities for people. However, where the education system in Kenya fails to do this, Aiducation creates opportunities for people. The impact that education can have on the economic, social and political future of the country has already been discussed; Aiducation wants to maximise this impact. This is why Aiducation scholarships are efficient and transparent. This is why the scholarships are awarded to children who have the ability and desire to make a real difference. This is why these high potential children are invited to mentoring academies where they can network, develop and flourish. Aiducation scholars have the ability to one day occupy crucial roles within crucial professions in Kenya, and they are all determined to make a difference and build a better Kenya, so that in future generations every child has a chance to build the life they want.
Some Aiducation scholars are already showing remarkable potential. Obrein Telly is one of the scholars whose story has been hugely successful. In the top 1% in his year after primary school, Obrein wanted to become both a neurosurgeon who opened hospitals for the mentally disabled, and an MP. An Aiducation scholarship allowed him to pursue these dreams at Nakuru Boys High School. When at school, Obrein led an effort to raise money for impoverished Kenyans, raising over 30,000 shillings and landing him in the papers; this would not be in the only time Obreins name was in print, as he appeared in the papers again after attending a climate change summit in the UK. Obrein has now graduated from high school with an A in his KCSE examinations, a very rare achievement, and one that means Obrein will essentially be able to study a course of his choice at a top Kenyan university. Aiducation is allowing many other children to follow Obreins example, and their talent and potential can now impact Kenyas development, rather than being wasted.
The Aiducation model allows Britain to directly finance Kenyas development in a way that is economically, socially and politically sustainable. Aiducation scholarships encourage children to maximise their potential through innovation, hard work and integrity. Aiducation is about sending children to school so that they can build a better Kenya. Aiducation, if it continues to receive appropriate funding, can be a key driving force behind the deliverance of significant development in Kenya.
