The life of Zhang was between 34 and 156 A.D., which was in the period of Eastern Han Dynasty (æ±æ¼¢æœä»£) Zhang was born in the tenth year of the Jianwu under the reign of Han Emperor Guangwu in Eastern Han Dynasty. About the background of era of Han Emperor Guangwu, Emperor Guangwu unified China under the separated regime. [6] He also abolished the previous harmful policies, inspired people to be educated, made the society safe and stable, strengthened centralization of power, and so forth, this period was known as "Guangwu prosperousness" (「光æ¦ä¸èˆˆã€). [7] However, because he divided and assigned lands to people who were considered as worthy to have such lands by the emperor, which made the serious situation of annexing lands and made local powerful bullies emergence. [8] This was one of main reason for Eastern Han Dynasty overthrown. [9] On the other hand, in Zhang's childhood, he was very smart and was familiar so much with "Tao-te-ching" (《é“德經》), which was also called "Lao-Tsu" (《è€å》). [10] Moreover, he had ever learnt in Imperial Academy (太å¸). [11] In fact, Zhang in early life stage studied so hard and he really aspired to become an officer for contribution to the Eastern Han imperial court. [12]
Until the era of Han Emperor Ming, he could get the position of magistrate. [13] Despite this, after Zhang became an officer, he experienced the unexpected situations, such as some powerful people bullied around masses in locality, corruption between officers, and so on, under these situations, the masses were suffering even could not satisfy with physical needs like having enough food. [14] Because Zhang thought that he could not make these circumstances change, then, he only had ambition with studying Tao. [15] In last years of era of Han Emperor Ming, Zhang decided to quit his position and thankfully rejected the imperial's requests of staying. [16] Later, he withdrew from the society and lives in obscurity to be a hermit, and study the ways of long-lasting life (長生之é“). [17] In the era of Han Emperor Zhang, the imperial court intended to recruit Zhang with the position Boshi (åšå£«) as equivalent as the title of Professor in present days for the Imperial Academy, but Zhang claimed that he was sick and refused it. [18]
About the background of "Reign of Han Emperor Ming and Zhang" (ã€Œæ˜Žç« ä¹‹æ²»ã€), they implemented the policies, such as tolerantly running the country, making the soldiers rest, and taking care of the masses, which made their reigns have the remarkable results. [19] During these two emperors' period, overall to speak, the economy had a good development and the society was safe and stable. [20] However, many of times, the local situations were concealed to the imperial court, and were not necessary to fit in with the account of history as we know. Moreover, in the last years of era of Han Emperor Zhang, the powers of external relatives in the imperial house became strong and began the threat for the Eastern Han Dynasty gradually. [21]
Until the era of Han Emperor He, Zhang again was recruited with the position of the Imperial Tutor (太傅), however, Zhang still refused again at this time. [22] Subsequently, in the era of Han Emperor Shun, because Zhang was believed to eliminate evil beings and he had been saving a lot of people, thousands of people would like to follow him. [23] Zhang grouped and organized them together, and set different laws and decrees for them. [24] Also, Zhang assigned specific jobs for each of person, taught them different kinds of knowledge, and also persuade them doing more charities. [25] Gradually, an organization of Taoism was founded by these people, and Zhang became the Ancestral Master in Taoism genuinely. [26] Furthermore, due to the requirement of providing Five Pecks of Rice for those who wanted to become Taoists, Zhang established Tao of Five Pecks of Rice in the era of Han Emperor Shun. [27] And, Zhang also wrote the classic of Taoism with twenty-four volumes to contribute the development of Taoism's literatures. [28] Finally, according to the legend, in A.D. 156, Zhang passed away at 123 years old on Mount Qingcheng (é’城山) in the era of Han Emperor Huan, and Zhang was claimed as Ancestral Celestial Master by Taoists. [29]
In fact, from the era of Han Emperor He, the Eastern Han Dynasty started to decline. [30] Between 88 and 159 A.D., the external relatives constantly fought for the powers and controlled in the imperial court. [31] Furthermore, Han Emperor He hoped to take advantage of eunuchs' powers to prevent the external relatives. [32] However, it would make the situation worse because it appeared two aspects which were the external relatives and eunuchs to fight for the powers of control in the last periods of Eastern Han dynasty. [33] In addition, many of subsequent emperors held their positions within a very short period, which made the society unstable such as many corruptions between officers, and the emperors could not implement the good policies for the common people. [34] Certainly, at the same time, the economy was also destroyed in serious extent under the unstable circumstances with different struggles in the imperial court.
Taoism was founded in the last years of Eastern Han Dynasty essentially, and Taoism had great impacts on society and politics for this dynasty, in which one of reasons was believers of Taoism, were constantly increasing. [35]
First of all, for the political aspect, as mentioned before, in the last years of Eastern Han Dynasty, in the internal situation, there were too many struggles in the imperial court and many corruptions between the officers in the locality and centrality, which means the reign of the last years of the dynasty, was really bad. [36] In addition, wars constantly happened with other races in the external situation. [37] Under these circumstances, the society was really in turmoil and common people were really suffering so much. [38] Then, because the common people wanted to seek a place for comforting their suffering mind, more and more people participated the organization of Taoism to form a very strong and big religion of Taoism. [39]
Tao of Five Pecks of Rice played the important role there. Until Zhang Lu, who is Zhang Daoling's grandson, promoted Taoism to the middle areas of Han country (æ¼¢ä¸åœ°å€), he took advantage of this power of this religion for dividing the main powers in these middle areas, to be a new important power in these areas and to affect the control of centralized government. [40] Moreover, he implemented that Taoism became the locally political core, and made unification between politics and religion (政教åˆä¸€), which was really more easier to manage the believers and made the believers obey the commands by the leaders in Taoism, no matter what kinds of commands, like uprising to the government. [41] Subsequently, Zhang Xiu in Tao of Five Pecks of Rice organized the believers of Taoism to resist the central government and made the society messier at that time. [42]
Second, for the social aspect, Taoism had its effects in national scale, from the emperors to the common people in the country. [43] At that time, the rulers always presented Taoism respectfully and craved to take pills of immortality. [44] Due to the respect of Taoism by many rulers, it also had prevalence within the aristocracy. [45] Thus, Taoism became popular in the society. Moreover, in the last years of Eastern Han Dynasty, Confucianism had erosion because it had been distorted so much at that time, which indeed made gentries disappointed with Confucianism. [46] In addition, Confucianism lost the power to maintain the order of society, so that the gentries transferred to study the rising Taoism. [47] Because a group of gentries could be a very strong power in the society, their respects made Taoism have great influence in the society. [48] On the other hand, common people also supported and respected Taoism so much at that time. [49] Taoism inspired them to do more charities and behave themselves. [50] Under such situations, more and more common people became believers and Taoism became a real religion gradually. [51]
In conclusion, about the changes and impact brought by Taoism to the society, it should be negative because in certain degrees, it actually had destruction for the order of society because of the uprisings by common people, and it made the emperors much more neglect in the affairs of the country because of the expectation of becoming immortality. On the other hand, it also should be positive because it became a new religion for supporting people to have a place of comforting in the messy society, and it also could educate people to help each other and behave themselves in good ways.
There are comparisons between Chinese gods in folk religion and Korean gods in three dimensions, as well as their origins and power, their social structure, and their roles and the way people would treat them in events that prayers or blessings by people are not anticipated there.
On the one hand, first of all, Chinese folk religion originated from primitive religions to form colorful and multiple believes and worship. [52] The activities were divination practice, divination through interpreting dreams, astrology, ceremonies for souls or dead, and so forth, which were held by shamans with higher status. [53] In fact, it expressed the expectations of ordinary people for understanding and contacting with the natural powers because they really had no such knowledge at that time. However, these rituals which were not systematic had not fixed yet and were not as a real religion. [54]
Later, when it was affected by Confucianism so much, people would like to worship the figures who had ever contributed the societies in history and were respected by common people, for examples, Mazu (媽ç¥-) and Dayu (大禹) in regional scale, Mammon (財神) and Guandi (é-œå¸) in national scale, Luban (é¯ç) in industry of scale, and so forth. [55] Actually, believes of gods were developed and became abundant in period of Zhanguo (Warring States, 戰國時期), and the doctrines and teachings of gods were expanded from parables of Zhuangzi (莊å) and fangshi (æ-¹å£«) by Yanqi (燕齊). [56] At that time, people started to believe in gods and the rulers were convinced that there were some medicines for people to become immortality even gods. [57]
Until Taoism was formed from Eastern Han Dynasty, due to Taoism was based on ancient religions and folk sorceries, like fangshi (æ-¹å£«) and fangshu (æ-¹è¡“) in Qin Dynasty, Confucianism, the concepts of Yin (é™°) and Yang (陽), and so forth, the gods of folk religion were absorbed in Taoism. [58] Gradually, the believes of gods became the core of religious Taoism, and studying Tao to become gods became the pursuit between the believers of religious Taoism who believed in gods and thought that they could study to become a god. [59] On the other hand, the figures in Buddhism also has been apotheosized, such as Sakyamuni (釋迦牟尼) and Avaloktesevera (觀ä¸-音). [60]
After all, the origins of Chinese gods in folk religion are Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, and its power was really spread in the folk for common people in different periods. Until nowadays, it still has the impact in the folk and many people would also like to have the rituals to express the honor of deities.
Second, about the social structure, in fact, they had the organization to rank the gods, usually in according with their status, honors, and contributions. [61] It was organized into a huge bureaucracy in Chinese gods. [62] As we know, it had an imagination of a heavenly imperial house on the counterpart of earth, there are many gods and they have different positions and jobs assigned. However, the most powerful god is Jade Emperor in the heavenly imperial house and other gods should obey his commands and follow the rules set by him. Thus, we can see that it really has a bureaucracy like the imperial courts in different periods. [63]
Third, about their roles and people's treatment, of course, they have supernatural powers in people's mind and many of people respect the gods so much. In China, there are divisions between the gods and demons, like good and evil beings, which implicates that people also emphasize the norms of right and wrong. [64] In fact, when sometimes people encounter some events they do not expect or anticipate, they will have praying or blessing to worship different gods through burning joss sticks mainly. [65]
As we know, many temples in current days also provide people to have the rituals for burning joss sticks, providing sacrifices like roasting infant pigs, and also different kinds of divinations. Chinese would go to the temples or hold the rites at home for blessing gods on auspicious date and the participants also have make them clean and cannot taste the sacrifices when they are preparing. Otherwise, such participants would be considered as impolite and not sincere in the rite for the gods.
After all, such kinds of activities provide people to comfort their minds or souls when they encounter some problems or difficulties, and the gods for the folk also have the representations of solving problems, avoiding sufferings and disasters, and have the power to bring about positive changes in existing state of affairs.
On the other hand, first of all, Korea also has different and various kinds of gods for common people worship such as Mountain God, Earth God, and so on. [66] Its origins were actually like China, as well as Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism because the Korean gods played the important role in the Korean religions while these three religions affected the Korean religions so much. [67] In fact, the primitive religion of Korea was the forms of Shamanism and Totemism, thus, common people always might find the representatives of totem for the gods and had contacts through like Wenmi (å•ç±³) which means they asked a person who claimed that he or she had supernatural power to hold a ritual for the contacts. [68]
However, in history, usually the poor people went to visit such kinds of Shaman who was termed as mudang in Korea. [69] This was because there were condemnations and legal sanctions for mudang to prohibit their practices and activities by the government in traditional time, and "they were put to the lowest class of Choson society" (Cheng, 2010). [70] Despite this, nowadays, their traditions still enacts in daily life, and in rural and urban areas, their rites still can be found. [71]
After all, like China, the origins of Korean gods in folk religion are Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, and also Shamanism and Totemism. For its power, it was also spread in the folk for common people, even nowadays, it still has the impact in the folk and many people would also like to have the rituals to contact with the deities.
Second, about the social structure, in fact, the gods in Korean religion are polytheistic. [72] It is unlike the Chinese gods in folk religion that has the form of bureaucracy, and the Korean gods are considered to have independence of roles between them. [73] Moreover, they have no organization and have autonomy to handle the affairs for the folk, which means they would not communicate or even discuss with any other gods to execute their different fuctions. [74]
Third, about their roles and people's treatment, again, it is not like China to divide gods and demons, which means they have no really rigid divisions between good and evil beings. It would depend on the situations to judge whether they can help or harm to people rather than set who is good or who is bad. [75] The gods are believed that they can bring not only with good fortune and also with punishment to people. [76] Actually, people in Korea would believe that such gods are living in the upper world and they do not like the dirty things, thus, when Korean would have the rite for the gods, they will make everything clean so much, such as the places for rites and food cooking. [77]
Because the ritual should have everything clean, it is also the representation of purification. Moreover, everything used for the rite also should be new ones, such as the food as sacrifices and decorations, and Korean also would buy the necessary things for the rite on auspicious date and would not bargain the prices for the goods. [78] The participants also have to wash themselves and cannot taste the sacrifices when they are preparing. [79] Eventually, the ritual will be started by the mudang to operate a cleansing rite. [80] Otherwise, such participants would also be considered as impolite and not sincere in the rite for the gods. Indeed, the gods in Korea are considered as the supernatural beings which can aid the supplicants, make them have good fortune, and help them to avoid the unfortunate events. [81]
