With the split of World War II 'Allies', the new antagonists concentrated on developing long range ICBMs that could carry nuclear warheads. The Soviets were pioneers in the field of development of both ICBM and that of developing anti - missile missiles (now BMD). This led to large scale funding from the US side to counter the threat. The development of Multiple Independent Re-entry Vehicles (MIRV) led to initiation of the 'Star Wars' program. Broadly, the development phase of the BMD can be divided into the following:-
Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Defences: Part I (1958-1968). The logic driving this program called for an exo - atmospheric (60 miles or higher above the earth's surface) or very high altitude, long range interceptor carrying a 400 kilo ton nuclear warhead that, when detonated, would destroy incoming missiles.
Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Defences: Part II (1969-1976).This was the period during which the USA and the Soviet Union signed the ABM Treaty which limited both sides to two anti-ballistic missile interceptor sites. A 1974 Protocol reduced the two sites to one each and to 100 interceptors. This was also the period of development of the MRV by the Russians.
Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Defences: Part III (1983-2000).This was the period of 'Star Wars', 'Patriot' missile system, which proved to be the first BMD to a certain extent. This was the period of development of the USA led National Missile Defence (NMD) program.
Historically, the deployment of missile defenses has been limited because of political, economic, and technological constraints [1] . One primary concern has been that, if one nuclear force employed defenses of this kind, it could upset the strategic nuclear balance with opposing nuclear forces. In the absence of missile defenses, ballistic missiles are capable of striking each other's territories on short notice. If the attacker had missile defenses, however, it was argued, the attacker might be able to strike first and then block a retaliatory strike [2] . A state in possession of effective missile defenses, conceivably, could intimidate other nuclear countries because of this first-strike advantage. Therefore, many believe that missile defenses undermine deterrence, and create strategic instability.
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. In 1972, the ABM Treaty was signed by USA and Soviet Union. This restricted the deployment of ABMs in both, NATO and Warsaw Blocks. It was seen by many in the West, as a key piece in nuclear arms control. The treaty was an implicit recognition of the need to protect nuclear balance by ensuring that, neither side could hope to reduce the effects of retaliation to acceptable levels. In the East, however, it was seen as a way to avoid having to maintain an anti-missile technology race at the same time as maintaining a missile race. For many years, the ABM Treaty was, in the West, considered one of the landmarks in arms limitations. It was perceived as requiring two enemies to agree not to deploy a potentially useful weapon, deliberately to maintain the balance of power [3] .
Anti-Ballistic Missile Defense (ABMD). On December 13, 2001, USA gave Soviet Union notice of withdrawal from the treaty. This led to the eventual creation of the Missile Defense Agency. The withdrawal had many critics as well as supporters. Supporters of the withdrawal argued that it was a necessity in order to test and build a limited National Missile Defense to protect the United States from nuclear blackmail by a rogue state. Critics of the treaty predicted that the withdrawal would be a "fatal blow" to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and would lead to a "world without effective legal constraints on nuclear proliferation." The construction of a missile defense system was also feared to enable the US to attack with a nuclear first strike.
CHAPTER IV
WORLDWIDE ANTI BALLISTIC MISSILE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROGRAMS
NMD OF USA
Under its National Missile Defence program, over the past few years, the United States has fielded an initial BMDS and is enhancing the system with additional capabilities in the form of deployed sensors, interceptors, and enhanced command and control. The US BMD systems chart is as shown below [4] :-
BMD System
Intercept Phase
To Defend Against
Patriot PAC - 3
Terminal
SRBMs
Medium Extended Area Defense (MEADS)
Terminal
SRBMs and for area defense
THAAD
Midcourse
SRBMs and MRBMs
AEGIS BMD (formerly Navy Theater Wide)
Boost and midcourse
SRBMs and possibly vs. ICBMs
Airborne Laser
Boost
SRBMs and ICBMs
Ground-Based Interceptor
Midcourse
ICBMs
COMPONENTS
Sensors
The NMD system works on a layered defence concept and incorporates a wide range of sensors to detect and track threat missiles through all phases of their trajectory. Satellites and a family of land-and sea-based radars provide worldwide sensor coverage.
Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS). STSS program is pursued as a space-based sensor component of the BMDS. Using sensors capable of detecting visible and infrared light, the STSS constellation of satellites will become part of a collection of land, sea, air, and space-based BMDS sensors. The programme overview is as under [5] :-
Launch two tandem satellites into low earth orbit on 25 Sep 09.
Both satellites are currently operating nominally and are undergoing a series of System Functionality Testing further to begin System Performance Testing.
Supports the development and fielding of a future missile defense operational satellite constellation.
STSS Demo Satellites have participated in MDA missile tests BVT-01, FTX-07 and FTT-14, met all test objectives, and confirmed the ability to track missile targets with the acquisition sensors on both spacecrafts.
Track Sensor calibration is on track for participation in the next missile test.
Upgraded Early Warning Radars (UEWR) [6] . Three Air Force Early Warning Radars (Beale, Calif.; Fylingdales, United Kingdom and Thule, Greenland) were upgraded and integrated into the BMDS. The upgrades modernized the hardware and software to improve midcourse BMDS sensor coverage by providing critical early warning, tracking, object classification and cueing data. The Thule, Greenland UEWR will complete BMDS integration in Fiscal Year (FY) 2011. All three UEWRs will transfer to the U.S. Air Force for sustainment in FY12. (The Early Warning Radar in Clear, Alaska is planned to begin the UEWR modernization and fielding in FY13.)
Overview.
Solid state, phased array, all weather, long-range radars.
Provide Integrated Tactical Warning / Attack Assessment.
Supports Space Surveillance Network.
Detects, identifies, and tracks man-made objects in Earth orbit.
Provide midcourse coverage for Ballistic Missile Defence System.
Detects sea-launched or intercontinental ballistic missiles.
Provides real-time information to BMDS Command and Control nodes.
Provides threat ballistic missile tracking.
Update the target tracks to the interceptor while the interceptor is in flight
Details.
One (COBRA DANE), two (Beale, Thule), or three (Fylingdales) radar faces. Each face provides 120°coverage.
Each face is approximately 95 feet; radars are 120 feet high.
Detects objects out to 3000 miles.
Cobra Dane operates in L-Band. Beale, Fylingdales and Thule operate in Very High Frequency Band.
Cobra Dane Upgrade [7] . The Cobra Dane radar in Shemya, Alaska has been upgraded to include the missile defense mission and has been integrated into the BMDS. The upgrade improves midcourse BMDS sensor coverage by providing acquisition, tracking, object classification and data that can be used for cueing, launch of interceptor missiles and course updates of interceptors while retaining the site's legacy intelligence and space track missions. The system overview is as follows:-
Phased-array, all-weather, long-range radar.
Detects sea-launched or intercontinental ballistic missiles.
Classifies reentry vehicle and other missile objects.
Provides real-time information to Fire Control.
Provides tracking of threat ballistic missiles sufficiently accurate to commit the launch of interceptors and to update the target tracks to the interceptor while the interceptor is in flight.
Sea-Based X-Band Radars (SBX) [8] . SBX Radar tracks, discriminates, and assesses the flight characteristics of ballistic missiles. The SBX provides an advanced capability to the overall BMDS, greatly increasing the Missile Defense Agency's ability to conduct operational and realistic testing of the BMDS, while providing an operational capability to the Combatant Commands. The system overview is as follows:-
The SBX Radar is a unique combination of advanced X-band radar with a mobile, ocean-going, semi-submersible platform that provides the BMDS with extremely powerful and capable radar that can be positioned to cover any part of the globe.
The vessel is based on a fifth-generation semi-submersible oil drilling platform. It is twin-hulled, self-propelled, and stable in high winds and turbulent sea conditions.
Its ocean-spanning mobility allows the radar to be repositioned as needed to support the various test scenarios envisioned for the Ballistic Missile Defence System or to provide an advanced radar capability to obtain missile tracking information while an incoming threat missile is in flight, discriminate between the hostile missile warhead and any decoys, and provide that data to interceptor missiles so that they can successfully intercept and destroy the threat missile before it can reach its target.
SPY-1 Radar [9] . Used aboard Aegis cruisers and destroyers, the SPY-1 Radar will be part of the Initial Missile Defence Capability. Planned improvements to existing phased array S-band radars will enhance the system's capability to track short, medium and long-range interceptors.
Army Navy / Transportable Radar Surveillance (AN/TPY-2) [10] . The AN/TPY-2 is a transportable X-band, high resolution, phased-array radar designed specifically for BMD. The AN/TPY-2 is capable of tracking all classes of ballistic missiles and identifying small objects at long distances. This radar plays a vital role in the BMDS by acting as advanced "eyes" for the system, detecting ballistic missiles early in their flight and providing precise tracking information for use by the system. Use of multiple sensors provides overlapping sensor coverage, expands the BMDS battle space, and complicates an enemy's ability to penetrate the defense system. The same radar provides surveillance, track, discrimination and fire control support for the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) weapon system.
Details.
Radar, coupled with layered sensors, give the BMDS a continuous tracking and discrimination capability with more opportunities to engage the target, resulting in a greater probability for a successful intercept.
The radars pass target data to the BMDS and THAAD command and control systems.
The radars perform autonomously or as cued by other sensors.
Boost Phase Defence
The boost phase is the part of a missile flight path from launch until it stops accelerating under its own power. Typically the boost phase ends at altitudes of 300 miles or less, and within the first 3 to 5 minutes of flight. During this phase, the rocket is climbing against the Earth's gravity. Intercepting a missile in its boost phase is the ideal solution. The two types of boost defense elements are [11] :-
Airborne Laser (ABL).
(b) Kinetic Energy Interceptors.
Airborne Laser (ABL) [12] . The Airborne Laser Test Bed (ALTB) is being developed as an advanced platform for the Department of Defense's directed energy research program. Using two solid state lasers and a megawatt-class Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser housed aboard a modified Boeing 747-400 Freighter, the ALTB uses directed energy to demonstrate the potential of using directed energy as a viable technology against ballistic missiles. The operational sequence of the system is as follows:-
The Airborne Laser uses six strategically placed infrared sensors to detect the exhaust plume of a boosting missile.
Once a target is detected, a kilowatt-class solid state laser, the Track Illuminator, tracks the missile and determines a precise aim point.
The Beacon Illuminator, a second kilowatt-class solid state laser, then measures disturbances in the atmosphere, which are corrected by the adaptive optics system to accurately point and focus the high energy laser at its intended target.
Using a very large telescope located in the nose turret, the beam control/fire control system focuses the megawatt class COIL beam onto a pressurized area of the boosting missile, holding it there until the concentrated energy causes the missile to break apart.
Kinetic Energy Interceptors [13] . This program's mission is to provide the BMDS a strategically deployable, tactically mobile land and sea-based capability to defeat medium to long-range ballistic missiles during the boost, ascent and midcourse phases of flight. This weapon system has the potential capacity to be deployed as an element of the integrated BMDS in three configurations, i.e. land-mobile/ fixed and sea-mobile. These multiple deployment configurations increase engagement opportunities, enhance the BMDS's layered defensive capability, and decrease life-cycle operation costs by leveraging common sub-components across the three deployed configurations.The program was terminated to the fiscal and technological issues in May 2009.
Midcourse Phase Defense
The midcourse phase of a ballistic missile trajectory allows the longest window of opportunity to intercept an incoming missile up to 20 minutes. This is the point where the missile has stopped thrusting so it follows a more predictable glide path. The sensors have a longer time to track and engage the target compared to boost and terminal phases. Also, more than one interceptor could be launched to ensure a successful hit. A drawback is that the attacker has an opportunity to deploy countermeasures against a defensive system. However, the sensors have more time to observe and discriminate countermeasures from the warhead. It has ground-and sea-based elements. The types of the Midcourse Defense Segment are [14] :-
Ground Based Midcourse Defense (GMD).
Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense (Aegis BMD).
Ground Based Midcourse Defence (GMD) [15] . The mission of the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense element of the Ballistic Missile Defense System is to provide Combatant Commanders the capability to engage and destroy limited intermediate and long - range ballistic missile threats in the midcourse battle.
Overview.
GMD uses an array of ground and sea-based sensors, radars, and ground-based interceptor missiles that are capable of detecting, tracking, and shooting down long-range ballistic missiles during the midcourse phase of flight.
A sensor-propulsion package that directly hits the incoming missile by ramming the warhead at a closing speed of approximately 15,000 miles per hour to destroy it. This is called "hit-to-kill" technology, uses no explosives and has been proven in a number of flight tests including three using Ground Based Interceptors.
Details. Composed of Ground-Based Interceptors and Ground Systems Components:-
Ground-Based Interceptor. A three-stage, solid fuel booster with an EKV. When launched, the booster missile carries the EKV toward the target's predicted location in space. Once released from the booster, the 230-pound EKV uses data received in-flight from ground-based radars and its own on-board sensors to close with and destroy the target warhead well outside Earth's atmosphere using only the kinetic force.
Ground Systems. The backbone of the GMD element. It includes redundant fire control nodes, interceptor launch facilities, and a complex communications network for planning, directing and controlling the GMD element.
Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense [16] . Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) is the sea-based component of the BMDS. Aegis BMD builds upon the Aegis Weapon System, Standard Missile, Navy and joint forces' Command, Control and Communication systems. The Commander, Operational Test and Evaluation Force formally found Aegis BMD to be operationally effective and suitable. In recognition of its scalability, Aegis BMD/ SM-3 system is a keystone in the Phased Adaptive Approach for missile defense in Europe. The system overview and testing details are as follows:-
Defeats short to intermediate-range, unitary and separating, midcourse-phase, ballistic missile threats with the Standard Missile-3 (SM-3), as well as short-range ballistic missiles in the terminal phase with the SM-2.
BMD Long Range Surveillance and Track (LRS&T). Aegis BMD ships on Ballistic Missile Defense patrol, detect and track ballistic missiles of all ranges - including Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles and report track data to the missile defense system. This capability shares tracking data to cue other missile defense sensors and provides fire control data to Ground-based Midcourse Defense interceptors and other elements of the BMDS, including land-based firing units (Terminal High Altitude Area Defense, Patriot) and other Navy BMD ships.
Testing. Since the first intercept test conducted in January 2002, this system has demonstrated 20 successful intercepts in 24 at sea events, including intercepts of two targets by two interceptors during a single test. This figure does not include the successful intercept of a non-functioning satellite during Operation Burnt Frost in February 2008.
Terminal Phase Defense
A missile enters the terminal phase when the warhead reenters the atmosphere. Engagement of missile has to be done in tens of seconds after its reentry. The various types in Terminal Defense Segment are [17] :-
Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD).
PATRIOT Advanced Capability-3 (PAC-3).
Medium Extended Air Defense System (MEADS).
Terminal High Altitude Area Defence (THAAD) [18] . The THAAD element will give the BMDS a valuable, rapidly transportable, forward-deployable capability that will intercept and destroy ballistic missiles inside or outside the atmosphere while they are in their final, or terminal, phase of flight.
Overview.
Land-based element capable of shooting down a ballistic missile both inside and just outside the atmosphere (i.e., Endo/Exo-atmospheric capability)
.
Highly effective against the asymmetric ballistic missile threats.
Uses hit-to-kill technology whereby kinetic energy destroys the incoming warhead.
The high-altitude intercept allows for enemy weapons of mass destruction to burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground.
Details. It has four main components:-
Launcher. Truck mounted, highly mobile, able to be stored and interceptors can be fired and reloaded rapidly.
Interceptor. Designed to intercept its target both in and out of the atmosphere using hit-to-kill lethality.
Radar. Largest air-transportable X-band Radar in the world searches, tracks, and discriminates objects and provides updated tracking data to the interceptor
Fire Control, Communication and Data-Management Backbone. It links THAAD components together; links these components to external units and to the entire Ballistic Missile Defense System and plans intercept solution.
Development. Completed seven successful intercept tests, including operationally realistic tests in March 2009 and June 2010 which resulted in the successful intercept of separating and short range unitary ballistic missile targets.
Patriot Advanced Capability-3 (PAC-3) [19] . It is one of the most mature hit-to-kill weapon systems of the BMDS which is operational with the U.S. Army. The system overview is as follows:-
A land-based element built upon the proven PATRIOT air and missile defense infrastructure.
Provides simultaneous air and missile defense capabilities.
Works with THAAD to provide an integrated, overlapping defense against missile threats in the terminal phase of flight. Jointly, these systems engage the threat by forming a multi-tier theater defense against adversary missile threats using peer-to-peer engagement coordination, early warning track data, and battle management situational awareness.
Contributes to the entire system's situational awareness by transmitting precision cueing data to other theater elements while simultaneously protecting system assets against short-range ballistic missiles, large-caliber rockets, and air-breathing threats.
It has added Upper-Tier Debris Mitigation capability to mitigate the excessive radar load and potential missile waste caused by debris from upper-tier intercepts.
Medium Extended Air Defense System (MEADS) [20] . MEADS is a cooperative effort between the United States, Germany, and Italy to replace Hawk and Patriot systems worldwide. The system overview is as follows:-
MEADS will protect manoeuvring forces and fixed installations against attack by current and next-generation tactical ballistic missiles, low and high-altitude cruise missiles, remotely piloted vehicles, manoeuvring fixed-wing aircraft and rotary wing aircraft.
The total system is designed for rapid deployment and tactical mobility.
Mounted on wheeled vehicles, the system will include launchers carrying several interceptors along with advanced radars that will provide 360 degree coverage in the battlefield.
Uses hit-to-kill technology.
Linked to the Ballistic Missile Defense System Command, Control, Battle Management, and Communications element.
It will provide greater firepower with less manpower than current systems, producing dramatic operation and support cost savings.
Command, Control, Battle Management and Communications (C2BMC)
C2BMC program is the hub of the BMDS. It is the force multiplier that globally and regionally networks, integrates and synchronizes individual missile defense elements, systems and operations. It creates an optimized, layered missile defense capability that enables response to threats of all ranges in all phases of flight. It is a vital operational network that enables the U.S. president, secretary of defense and combatant commanders at strategic, regional and operational levels to systematically plan ballistic missile defense operations, to collectively see the battle develop, and to dynamically manage designated networked sensors and weapons systems to achieve global and regional mission objectives. It comprises of the following [21] :-
Ballistic Missile Defense Planner.
Provides capability to explore the effectiveness of various defensive plans.
Allows collaborative planning of the battle during pre-hostilities, imminent hostilities, and/ or while engaged in hostile action across all levels of operations.
Command and Control.
Provides situational awareness by turning detailed data into information.
Emphasizes a common, single, integrated ballistic missile picture and provides the status of the overall BMDS.
Battle Management.
Provides the first true BMDS battle management capability.
Acts as a force multiplier to achieve integrated, layered ballistic missile defense through improved sensor resource management and engagement coordination.
Ballistic Missile Defense Network.
Aligns and integrates the individual sensor and weapon elements of the BMDS.
Provides robust, high availability connectivity to quickly and unambiguously share information across the global BMDS.
Multiple Kill Vehicle (MKV) [22] . The MKV concept provided the capability for more than one kill vehicle to be launched from a single booster. The MKV mission was to destroy medium-range through intercontinental-range ballistic missiles equipped with multiple warheads or countermeasures by using a single interceptor missile. The system included a carrier vehicle with on-board sensors and a number of kill vehicles, each equipped with its own navigation thrusters. With multiple kill vehicles on a single target, the probability for a hit on the actual warhead is enhanced. During an actual hostile ballistic missile attack, the carrier vehicle with its cargo of small kill vehicles would have maneuvered into the path of an enemy missile. Using tracking data from the Ballistic Missile Defense System and its own seeker, the carrier vehicle would have dispensed and guided the kill vehicles to destroy any warheads or countermeasures.
Russia
Russia has striven actively for intrinsic ABM capabilities in its late model SAM systems. Russian ABM capable systems include the following [23] :-
S-300P (SA-10).
S-300V (SA-12).
S-300PMU-1/2 (SA-20).
S-400 (SA-21).
S-500.
ABM-1 Galosh.
ABM-3 Gazelle.
ABM-4 Gorgon.
The Russian ABM system is called the A-135. It is designed to detect and target incoming ballistic missiles in their final descent, or terminal phase, and destroy them with long- and short-range interceptors. System A-135 currently consists of three main components as follows:-
Long-range Gorgon (SH-11/ABM-4) interceptors.
Short-range Gazelle (SH-08/ABM-3) interceptors.
Pillbox multifunctional phased-array radar.
The system caters to both, exo-atmospheric and endo-atmospheric kills on incoming ballistic missiles. Russia is also deploying S-400, which is an advanced Russian surface-to-air missile system. It is capaable of destroying aircraft, cruise missiles, and short- and medium-range ballistic missiles at ranges of up to 400 kilometers [24] .The S-500 Samoderzhets (Autocrat) is a surface-to-air missile system, currently under development by the Almaz-Antey company. It is a new generation surface-to-air missile system, designed for intercepting ICBMs and for defense against AWACS and jamming aircraft. It is not an upgraded version of the S-400. With a planned range of 600 km, the S-500 will be able to detect and simultaneously engage up to 10 ballistic supersonic targets flying at a speed of 5 km/s and will have a flight ceiling of 40 km [25] .
Israel
The Arrow project was begun after the U.S. and Israel agreed to co-fund it. This system was designed and constructed in Israel with financial support by the United States by a multi-billion dollar development program called "Minhelet Homa" with the participation of companies like Israel Military Industries, Tadiran and Israel Aerospace Industries. During 1998 the Israeli military conducted a successful test of their Arrow missile. Designed to intercept incoming missiles travelling at up to 3 km/s. During 2004 joint experiment was carried out, in which the Arrow was launched against a real Scud missile. The experiment was a success, as the Arrow destroyed the Scud with a direct hit. During December 2005 the system was deployed successfully in a test against a replicated Shahab-3 missile. This feat was repeated on February 2007 [26] .
China
In March 2006, China tested an interceptor system comparable to the U.S. Patriot missiles. In January 2010, it announced a successful mid-flight ABM test. Additional to ABM capability, China's missiles also possess ASAT capabilities [27] .
KT series anti-ballistic / anti satellite missiles is reportedly a series of highly classified and thus little known missiles based on DF-21. Designed to intercept ballistic missiles and satellites, KT series utilizes experience gained from earlier FJ ABM developed decades earlier. Following models of KT series have been developed so far [28] :-
KT-1: designed to engage sub-orbital targets.
KT-1A: upgraded KT-1.
KT-409: upgraded solid-fuelled variant.
SC-19: KT-1 variant.
KT-2: designed to engage low earth orbit (LEO) targets at altitude up to 600 km.
KT-2A: designed to engage polar orbital targets.
KT-III: designed to engage targets at altitude 1000 km or higher.
China has bought the S-300PMU-1 and is licensed to manufacture it under the name Hongqi-10 (HQ-10). China is also the first customer of S-300PMU-2 and may be using the S-300V under the name HQ-18. Surface-to-air missiles that have some ABM capability [29] :-
HQ-19.
HQ-9.
KS-1.
HQ-10/ S-300.
HQ-17.
HQ-16.
HQ-15.
France
Aster is a family of surface-to-air missiles manufactured by Eurosam, a European consortium consisting of MBDA France, MBDA Italy and the Thales Group. The Aster 15 and Aster 30 missiles differ only in the size of their booster. The Aster 30 requires the longer tubes of the SYLVER A50 launcher, but its range is extended from 30 km to 120 km. Aster 30 is also capable of ballistic missile defense. It was developed to perform three distinct missions [30] :-
Ship point defence.
Ship local and area defence.
Ground-based area defence.
On 18 October 2010, France announced a successful ABM test. [31]
