The latter part of the nineteenth century can be argued to have given rise to a classical response to the end of European colonial enterprise in the West Indies. We must be reminded that European colonialism practiced the subjugation of varying ethnic groups and as a result the hands of time have featured the demise of the native West Indian population and also that of the peoples forcibly brought in to continue the extraction of resources from the new world. History reminds us also of the theoretical conception, practical development and the eventual conclusion of all these occurrences. The classical response that is alluded to, can be summed up in the words of Hart (1998);
'Before and after the apprenticeship period, most plantation owners were expecting that freedom would have disastrous effects. They anticipated that many workers would be reluctant to work on the plantation on which they been enslaved and that to attract workers they would have to pay higher wages that they could afford. The planters realized that one of the most effective ways of ensuring a supply of labour for the plantations would be importation of labourers from abroad' [1]
This paper will delve into three of the major reasons for the importation of indentured labourers and further analyze the effects of this phenomenon on the West Indian society.
First and foremost it must be noted that one of the key features was the need for cheap, easily controlled labour after the abolition of slavery. Secondly, one can also assert that the planters' quest for maintaining levels of production, expanding acreage and being competitive on the world market was another rationale. Finally the evidence of an exodus of the ex-slaves from the plantation can also be considered as a factor for forcing the planters into finding replacement for their 'lost labour' through immigrant sources.
The effects of this indentureship experiment will also be studied within this exercise. It will be analysed through its impact on three areas; the immigrant, the blacks and the wider society. In relation to the immigrants, focus will be on the benefits of the economic improvement afforded to them, while on the other hand analyzing their poor living conditions and the initiation and implementation of oppressive contractual laws. Putting the blacks within this framework will draw attention to low wages, resulting in strikes, while also observing the opportunities made possible for the advancing of skills and the increase in scope for progressing in small business enterprises. The phenomenon also affected relations within the entire society, for the immigrant workers functioned as a social buffer helping in the resolution of conflicts especially between the whites and the emerging middle class, although there are known conflicts between immigrant labourers and the white plantocracy, resulting in riots. It can also be argued that the immigrant population added financial strains on the economy since they demanded various social services.
It can be contended that one of the very crucial areas that had the power to coerce the Caribbean planters to resort to immigrant labour was the abolition of slavery. It must be mentioned though that Williams (1970) makes mention of an earlier intent of such an enterprise by prominent planters in Trinidad. He notes that as early as 1814, planters were suggesting that the best method to improve the colony would be to bring in free labourers from India on large scale which had the possibility of being cheaper slave labour. [2] In support of the view that the planters were leaning toward immigrant labour in response to the notion of abolition, Hart (1998) notes that the actual schemes for encouraging immigration were initiated as early as 1834; the year in which the first stages of the abolition act came into effect. [3] It must be noted that at that point slavery had coming to a close in the British colonies and resulted in The Abolition of Slavery Act coming into effect on August 1, and proclaiming that:
"Slavery shall be and is hereby utterly and forever abolished and declared unlawful throughout the British colonies, plantations and possessions abroad."
It can be argued that mans natural instincts kicked in and therefore it was only normal for the newly freed slaves to refuse working on the sugar plantations. Their actions can thus be justified, for we must be reminded that those plantations were the places where the most inhumane treatment ever administered by one group of humans to another in the most organized fashion. To add insult to injury, it must also be asserted that the white plantocracy still wanted a grasp on black labour and like any avid businessman, must have tried enticing them with monetary incentives. One can presuppose that some would have succumbed, but for others the generally notion that 'freedom' was far more valuable. Even without historical records one can easily give a logical synopsis of the situation that transpired at this juncture in history. One could definitely see the abandonment of plantations, especially if there were absentee-owners. Others would surely have become uneconomical enterprises since the sugar industry was basically blasted to the ground.
It must also be reemphasized that the former slaves had provided a readily available cheap source of easily controlled labour. Moore (1996) notes that the plantation had emerged as the supreme socio-economic institution, where the phenomenon enjoyed social and political dominance. [4] One can therefore argue that it based on this very notion that the white plantocracy had accumulated colossal wealth and enviable status in society. It is therefore of significance to understand that the plantation owners as a class were at the point of losing their economic wealth, and as a result their status in society. The point must then be made that it became of outmost importance that a new and similar source of cheap and easily controlled labour was to be found.
It is well renowned, that the lack of labour grossly affects any form of production, and this was no exception on the plantation. In this regard this factor can be argued to also negatively have affected the planter's ability to expand his acreage and thereby be a competitive within the sugar business. It can further be postulated that the mere fact that there was the existence of free men as labourers, one would easily expect a high level of compensation for such labour. In this regard, the ex- slaves would have to be paid wages and there, one could contend that they require it at very high levels.
In relation to the control of labour on the plantation one can assert that the notion of emancipation allowed for different treatment of labour. As a result the planters would enforce policies that were in effect before the abolishment of slave labour. Caribbean planters were hereby forced to find access to sources of labour that could easily be controlled. It can be asserted that having immigrant from a far removed geographical location with no sound cultural footing in the Caribbean region created such a phenomenon. It can be argued that the planters may have been much pleased to have such labourers who had 'nowhere to turn to', as a result would accept all to victimize the said labourers. Hence the planters were successful in their quest for cheaper labour that could be easily controlled.
It must be noted that after 1842, there was evidence of an exodus of the ex-slaves from the plantation. This hereby forced the planters to seek a replacement for his labour shortage. This begs the question as to whether or not the sugar industry, could survive without the black slave labour. It has been noted by Sewel (1863) that the lack of labour and the Creoles' desire for economic independence nearly destroyed the plantation economy. He further observes that planters were unable to procure sufficient labourers for working the land and consequently had to cut production. This, he asserts, resulted in a loss of profit that forced them to sell sections of land at inexpensive prices to the Creoles who would then farm for sustenance rather than profit. The point is therefore made that in this way, the planters were continually diminishing the available labour force as well as the amount of land that could be put into production. [5]
One can surely envision the immigration of labour as affecting the various strata's of society. In relation to the impact on the immigrants themselves, we can first look at it in a positive light since one can consider that it allowed for opportunity to improve their economic situation. Most of them saw this as an opportunity for improving their financial status, arguably coming from a society where they were already divided along caste lines. One can further assert that the opportunity afforded them the opportunity to deal with indebtedness that possible came out of low wages. Furthermore they were afforded the basic necessities on the plantation, of food, shelter, clothing and employment.* At the end of their contracts it has been observed that many returned to the place of origin with significant wealth.*. On the other hand it can be argued that they were exposed to similar conditions as slavery as Hart (1998) observes that, 'the Indian indentured labourers were shamelessly exploited in conditions little better than had been experienced by the slaves.' [6] It can therefore be contended that the immigrant had poor living conditions and in addition lacked recreational activities. Renard (1996) supports this notion by noting that the Indians in the French West Indies complained about insufficient and low quality of food, excessive work and bad treatment by the planters. It must be emphasized that the labourers were also resorted to strike action to the point where plantations were deserted. [7] They were further negatively affected by repressive laws and oppressive contractual agreements.*.
It must be noted that immigrant labour also affected the blacks in both positive and negative ways. Some moved out of the plantation sector in large numbers due to declining wages resulting in major strikes at varying intervals*. One a positive note this phenomena also gave the blacks a new opportunity to become skilled labourers and the like, and also had them to move from the rural into the urban areas where they were able to take on jobs as small traders, nurses and even washer- women and water carriers. Renard (1998) describes attempts that were made by the blacks to become independent of the plantation. Special note is made about the acquisition of land and other properties for developing small proprietorships. They got involved in the cultivation of all types of crops, rearing of animals that could be sold in the town markets. [8] Similarly this type of industrious spirit can be argued to have persisted even during the advent of immigrant labour. The down side to all these activities and opportunities was their taxation in order to support immigration. *
In relation to the entire society, it can be contended that the immigrant workers functioned as a social buffer helping in the resolution of conflicts especially between the whites and the emerging middle.* on the other side there was also conflicts resulting in riots between the Indians and the whites. The immigrant population also added financial strains on the economy since they demanded various social services.*.
It can be added that the forces of immigrants also allowed for the emergence of free villages.*
In conclusion we must be reminded of the need for immigrant labour arising from the need for cheap, easily controlled labour after the abolition of slavery. The quest for maintaining levels of production, expanding acreage and being competitive on the world market was another motive. Furthermore the evidence of mass departure of the ex-slaves from the plantation was also a reason for the planters move to find replacement labour. The effects of this indentureship affected the immigrant, the blacks and the wider society. Although the immigrants were afforded benefits of the economic improvement they were subjected to poor living conditions and oppressive contractual laws. The blacks, on the other hand suffered from low wages, resulting in strikes but had the opportunities for the advancement of skills that increased their scope for progressing in small business enterprises. The relations within the entire society were mixed since the immigrant workers functioned as a social buffer helping in the resolution of conflicts especially between the whites and the emerging middle class and on the other end of the spectrum allowed for known conflicts with the white plantocracy.
