For the past couple of decades, it has not been any secret that along with college education, come the college parties and at most of these parties, alcohol is either served or brought there. The major problem with all these parties is the number of countless college students' heavy drinking, or binge drinking. In this study, heavy episodic drinking, heavy drinking, and binge drinking will be used interchangeably. Many researchers have different definitions of binge drinking. The one that seemed most fitting for this study is the definition by the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (2004) where they officially defined binge drinking as "consuming five or more drinks in a row for males or four or more drinks in a row for females in about 2 hours" (Williams, Perko, Belcher, Leaver-Dunn, Usdan & Leeper, 2006). "Alcohol abuse and alcohol-related problems are considered among the most serious public health threats on American college campuses" (Wechsler, Davenport, Dowdall, Moeykens, & Castillo, 1994, as cited in Taylor, Johnson, Vaos, & Turrisi, 2006). "In fact, underage drinking and binge drinking on college campuses have been described as a national public health crisis in research, media coverage, and by many government agencies" (Wechsler, Molnar, Davenport, & Baer, 1999, as cited in Taylor et al., 2006).
College students that binge drink ultimately lead themselves to the possibility of "a range of negative consequences-including damaged property, poor class attendance, hangovers, trouble with authorities, injuries, and fatalities" (Hingson, Heeren, Winter & Wechsler, 2005, Wechsler Lee, Kuo & Lee, 2000, Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, Seibring, Nelson & Lee, 2002, Wechsler et al., 1994, as cited in Pederson & LaBrie, 2007). "Alcohol-related tragedies account for 40% of deaths among adolescents and young adults, with automobile crashes being the strongest contributor" (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 1998, as cited in Hildebrand, Johnson, & Bogle, 2001). Alcohol abuse also contributes to "unplanned sexual activity, and sexual aggression, unintended pregnancies, and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases including HIV" (CDC, 1998, Frinter & Rubinson, 1993, Koss & Gains, 1993, Wechsler et al., 1994, as cited in Hildebrand et al., 2001). "Although these facts are well-known, abusive drinking occurs at a higher rate among college students than among young people not attending college" (Johnston, O'Malley, & Bachman, 1997, as cited in Hildebrand et al., 2001).
There are many different reasons why researchers have found these disturbing facts to be true for many college students; however, this paper will focus on the topic of binge drinking and which specific groups of college students are most prevalent for and are at highest risks of taking part in binge drinking. To be more specific, this paper will center on intercollegiate student-athletes and their episodes of binge drinking as opposed to non-athletic students and their episodes of binge-drinking. Furthermore, this study will only involve students from Missouri Valley College and their experiences (whether intercollegiate student-athlete or non-athletic student) in binge-drinking.
Background of Study
An area of great struggle for colleges, universities, and the health of the student public has long been college students' problematic and extreme use of alcohol, more commonly known as binge drinking (Ward & Gryczynski, 2007). This has become such a problem that "the Surgeon General of the United States has established reducing heavy episodic, or binge, drinking among college students as a major health goal for the nation" (Wechsler, Lee, Nelson, & Kuo, 2002). "In general, college students are at high risk of problematic drinking; however, certain groups of students are at especially high risk. These high-risk groups include active members of Greek organizations (Cashin, Presley, & Meilman, 1998, as cited in Ward et al., 2007) and intercollegiate student-athletes" (Leichliter, Meilman, Presley, & Cashin, 1998, as cited in Ward et al., 2007).
LITERATURE REVIEW
In the past few decades, it has been no secret that along with the educational college life comes the college party life. This party life can pose an enormous amount of danger for students that partake in it. It would be naïve to say that many students do not drink alcohol at these parties. However, drinking alcohol is not the problem. The real problem is students drinking alcohol and abusing it, or binge drinking.
Binge Drinking
"Binge Drinking is a high-risk behavior that has become overwhelmingly common among US adults and is most prevalent among those aged 18-25 years (51% for ages 18-20, and 49% for ages 21-25)" (Wechsler et al., 2000, as cited in Vickers, Patten, Bronars, Lane, Stevens, Croghan, Schroeder & Clark, 2004). Binge drinking has become exceedingly common in many college campuses across America. "Approximately 2 in 5 college students engage in binge drinking" (Wechsler et al., 2002, Wechsler et al., 2000, Wechsler et al., 1994, Johnston, O'Malley & Bachman, 2001, CDC, 1997, Presley, Leichliter & Meilman, 1999, Presley, Meilman, Cashin & Lyerla, 1996, as cited in Wechsler, Lee, Nelson, & Kuo, 2002). "Many researchers studying college student alcohol consumption have used a binge drinking definition of 5 or more drinks in a row" (Meilman, Cashin, McKillip & Presley, 1998, as cited in Brenner & Swanik, 2007). "In 2004, the NIAAA officially defined binge drinking as consuming five or more drinks in a row for males or four or more drinks in a row for females in about 2 hours" (Williams, Perko, Belcher, Leaver-Dunn, Usdan & Leeper, 2006). In regards to those US adults aged 18-25, Grant (1997) and O'Malley & Johnston (2002) added that "twenty years of research has revealed that the highest proportion of heavy drinkers and individuals with diagnosable alcohol-use disorders and multiple substance dependencies are in the age range encompassing over 90% of all enrolled college students, the majority of these individuals being between the ages of 18 and 21" (Turrisi, Mallett, Mastroleo & Larimer, 2006).
In a survey conducted among a national sample of 17, 592 college students by Wechsler et al. in 1994, the researchers found that "approximately half (44%) of their respondents indicated that they had binge drank in the previous two weeks" (Durkin, Wolfe & Clark, 1999). Six years later, the numbers remained the same as Wechsler et al. (2000) "estimated that 44% of college students binge drank prior to responding to the 1999 College Alcohol Study" (Duncan, Boisjoly, Kremer, Levy & Eccles, 2005). A couple of years after the study by Wechsler et al. in 2000, the percentage of college students binge drinking seemed to have decreased slightly. In 2002:
"O'Malley et al. reviewed several nationally representative data sets (College Alcohol Study, Core Institute, Monitoring the Future, National College Health Risk Behavior Survey, and National Household Survey on Drug Abuse) and found a fairly consistent pattern: Approximately 70% of college students reported alcohol use in the past month and about 40% reported binge drinking. College students also have higher rates of alcohol use and binge drinking than do young adults who do not attend college" (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman & Schulenberg, 2004, Gfroerer, Greenbalt & Wright, 1997, Pashcall & Flewelling, 2002, Slutske, Hunt-Carter & Nabors-Oberg, 2004, as cited in Ford, 2007).
Only a year later, "according to the 2003 Monitoring the Future Survey (Johnston et al., 2004), 66% of college students reported past-month alcohol use and 39% reported binge drinking, whereas only 58% of their noncollege-age peers reported past-month use and 34% reported binge drinking" (Ford, 2007).
College students vs. Non-college students
Since the 1970's, the public has become increasingly concerned about alcohol abuse among our nation's college youth (McAloon, 1994). "Research has shown that alcohol is the most widely used drug on American college campuses" (Presley, Meilman, Cashin & Lyerla, 1996, Presley, Meilman & Lyerla, 1993, Presley, Meilman & Lyerla, 1995, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1991, Haden & Edmudson, 1991, Johnston, O'Malley & Bachman, 1994, Strange & Schmidt, 1979, as cited in Leichliter, Meilman, Presley & Cashin, 1998). College students, which earlier research has confirmed, are in the age group that has the highest risk of binge drinking and "are at an even higher risk for heavy episodic drinking than their peers who do not attend college" (Johnston, O'Malley & Bachman, 1994, as cited in Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport & Castillo, 1995). In addition, Ford (2007) reports that "young adults who attend college have higher rates of alcohol use and binge drinking than do young adults who do not attend college". Ironically, during high school, "non-college bound students engage in heavy drinking more than college-bound students; however, after high school, non-college-bound students only show a moderate increase in the prevalence of heavy drinking. Conversely, college-bound students drink significantly more after high school years, such that the prevalence of heavy drinking surpasses non-college-bound students" (O'Malley et al., 2002, as cited in Taylor, Johnson, Vaos, & Turrisi, 2006). Evidence that supports this is the "data from the Monitoring the Future study which show that while in high school, college-bound students use less of all classes of substances studied as compared to classmates not bound for college (Bachman, Wadsworth, O'Malley, Johnston & Schulenberg, 1997). However, after high school graduation, the increase in alcohol and marijuana use among college students exceeds that of their former classmates who are not attending college" (Duncan et al., 2005).
Gender
Studies show that a vast proportion of college students in the United States are heavy alcohol users. "A recurrent finding from these studies is that male college students drink more frequently and in greater quantities than do female students" (Capraro, 2000, Lemle, Walker & Greene, 1994, Brennan, Walfish & AuBuchon, 1986, Wechsler, 1996, as cited in Wilson, Pritchard & Schaffer, 2004). "Measures of national trends among college students show more than twice as many males than females report drinking 10 or more drinks per week" (Wechsler et al., 1995, as cited in Taylor et al., 2006). As a result of male college students drinking more frequently and in greater quantities than female college students, male college students also tend to report more alcohol-related problems than their college counterparts (Wechsler et al., 1995, as cited in Taylor et al., 2006).
Age
"Minimum drinking age laws are one set of tools that have been used to combat heavy alcohol use by college students. In 1984, the United States Congress passed the National Minimum Purchase Age Act (Toomey, Rosenfeld & Wagenaar, 1996), which encouraged each state to enact a minimum legal standard of 21 years for purchasing alcohol" (Wechsler et al., 2002). In short, the Minimum Purchase Age Act is known as the minimum legal drinking age (MLDA), which is 21 years of age. Although this is a national law, it seems to be loosely enforced on many college campuses as many underage students drink and drink heavily. Underage drinking is so prevalent on college campuses across the U.S. that "it has been described as a national public health crisis in research, media coverage, and by many government agencies" (Wechsler et al., 1999, as cited in Taylor et al., 2006). "Heavy drinking among college students tends to increase as they approach legal drinking age and levels off after they reach legal drinking age. This pattern tends to result in alcohol abuse and underage drinking by students younger than 21" (Wechsler et al., 2002, as cited in Taylor et al., 2006). In a study conducted by Taylor et al. (2006), they found that 37.1% of underage students, compared to 34.2% of legal aged students, reported having at least one binge-drinking episode in the past 2 weeks. Taylor et al. (2006) also found that students aged 20 and younger reported drinking more on Friday and Saturday than students of legal age did. Another important note is that college students of legal age also present problems of alcohol abuse as well, although they are less severe than underage students.
Ethnicity
In the general U.S. population, non-White ethnicities have been known to have higher risk of alcoholism than Whites do. However, this doesn't hold true for the college population (Kahler, Read, Wood & Palfai, 2003, as cited in Taylor et al., 2006). In fact, "across four national surveys of college students, the data consistently show White students reporting the highest prevalence of heavy drinking, followed by Hispanic and Black students, respectively" (O'Malley et al., 2002, as cited in Taylor et al., 2006). In the study conducted by Taylor et al. (2006), "White (36.6%) students were significantly more likely than non-White (32.8%) students to report binge drinking in the last 2 weeks". In that same study, Taylor et al. (2006) also found White students, on average, reporting having more drinks on Friday and getting drunk more often in the past 4 weeks. Ironically, although White students have been found to report more alcohol consumption than non-White students, it is the non-White students, on average, who report more alcohol-related problems (Taylor et al., 2006).
Binge Drinking & Consequences
"College students' heavy drinking and alcohol-related problems are major social problems in the United States" (Perkins, 2002, Wechsler, Dowdall, Maenner, Gledhill-Hoyt & Lee, 1998, as cited in Turrisi et al., 2006) and is also "considered among the most serious public health threats on American college campuses" (Wechsler et al., 1994, as cited in Taylor et al., 2006). College students' heavy drinking and alcohol related problems "has drawn a substantial amount of attention from university administrators, counselors, and researchers in the behavioral sciences" (Durkin et al., 1999). Wechsler et al. (1995) stated that "binge drinking is arguably the No. 1 public health hazard and the primary source of preventable morbidity and mortality for the more than 6 million full-time college students in America". Binge drinking by college students is ultimately associated with a wide variety of negative consequences. Alcohol drinkers:
"are more likely to have been insulted by others; been confronted with unwanted sexual assault; been a victim of date rape or sexual assault; been in a serious argument or quarrel; been pushed, hit, or assaulted; had their property damaged; been in a situation where they had unplanned sexual activity; put themselves in situations where they were more susceptible to sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV; driven while intoxicated, or ridden in a car with an intoxicated driver; been injured or had life threatening experiences" (Abbey, 2002, Cooper, 2002, Hingson, Heeren, Zakocs, Kopstein & Wechsler, 2002, as cited in Turrisi et al., 2006).
Some other negative consequences also associated with binge drinking include poor academic performance (Taylor et al., 2006), hangovers, trouble with authorities (Hingson et al., 2005, Wechsler et al., 2000, Wechsler et al., 2002, Wechsler et al., 1994, as cited in Pederson & LaBrie, 2007), and even death (Taylor et al., 2006). In particular, two major consequences of heavy episodic drinking are blackouts and alcohol poisoning. "Blackouts are experiences of amnesia postdrinking" (Goodwin, 1995, Goodwin, Crane & Guze, 1969, as cited in Pedersen et al., 2007) "and typically occur when high blood alcohol levels (BALs) are reached quickly" (Ryback, 1970, White, Signer, Kraus & Swartzwelder, 2004, as cited in Pedersen et al., 2007). In a study performed by White, Jamieson-Drake, and Swartzwelder (2002), they stated that "approximately half of all college students who drank alcohol reported experiencing at least 1 blackout" (Pedersen et al., 2007). "When college students engage in heavy drinking behavior over a short period of time, consequences can emerge both during the blackout (vandalism, risky sex, drunk driving) and in the long-term (lower-grade point average, overall heavier drinking patterns)" (White et al., 2002, Presley, Meilman & Leichliter, 2002, as cited in Pedersen et al., 2007).
The other major and more devastating consequence of heavy episodic drinking is alcohol poisoning. "Alcohol poisoning results from ingesting large quantities of alcohol and can lead to alcohol-induced nausea, vomiting, and even death" (Hingson, 2005, NIAAA, 2002, as cited in Pedersen et al., 2007). "Death can occur when large quantities of alcohol cause the brain to be deprived of oxygen, leading involuntary functions that regulate heart rate and respiration to shut down" (Kinney, 2000, as cited in Pedersen et al., 2007). "In 1995, an estimated 318 young people aged 15 to 24 years died from alcohol poisoning" (No author, 2006, as cited in Pedersen et al., 2007). Hingson et al. (2002) states that "alcohol is cited as being responsible each year for 1,400 student deaths; 500,000 unintentional injuries; 600,000 student assaults; 112,000 arrests; and 2.1 million cases (approximately 1 in 4) of driving under the influence of alcohol" (Turrisi et al., 2006).
Vickers et al. (2004) states that "students who binge drink are more likely to engage in unplanned sexual activity and sexual activity without adequate protection against pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases" (Grant-Harrington, Bringham & Clayton, 1997, Wechsler et al., 1999, Perkins, 2002, as cited in Vickers et al., 2004). "Academic-related correlates of binge drinking include grade-point average (GPA) lower than 3.0, poor performance on tests or projects, missed classes, and falling behind in schoolwork" (Wechsler et al., 2000, Wechsler et al., 1995, as cited in Vickers et al., 2004). In a national study by Wechsler et al. (1995), the researchers found that "students who claimed academic work was not at all important, had grades of (B) or less, studied less than four hours a day, or worked less than two hours a day for wages were more likely to binge drink than other students" (Durking et al., 1999). In a national survey by Presley, Meilman, Cashin, and Lyerla (1996) of nearly "37, 000 students at 66 four-year institutions", they found that "students with an A average consumed a little more than three drinks per week, B students had almost five drinks, C students more than six drinks, and D or F students reported nine drinks" (Taylor et al., 2006).
Why College Students Drink
There are many different reasons why college students drink alcohol. "Although interventions may attempt to warn students of the dangers associated with binge drinking, students may view heavy drinking as normative among all college students" (Berkowitz, 2005, Borsari & Carey, 2003, as cited in Pedersen et al., 2007). "Some students believe that drinking alcohol is a way to achieve status" (Musgrave-Marquart, Bromley & Dalley, 1997). Some students even believe that their use of alcohol represents their rite of passage into adulthood and that it makes it easier for them to form new ties socially (Ward & Gryczynski, 2007). Evidence reports that some college women may drink heavily to fit in and to be more attractive to their male peers (Pedersen et al., 2007). Other students believe that "because of the social context of college, it influences and reinforces drinking behaviors (Wechsler et al., 2000, Carey, 1995, Carey, 1993, Gotham, Sher & Wood, 1997, Harford & Grant, 1987) and results from several studies show that college students drink for social reasons" (Carey, 1993, Cooper, 1994, Cooper, Russell & Windle, 1992, Cronin, 1997, as cited in Pedersen et al., 2007). In research completed by Wechsler et al. in 1994, it illustrates college binge drinking "to be indicative of a drinking style that is characterized by more frequent and heavier alcohol use, intoxication, and drinking to get drunk" (Wechsler et al., 1995). While some students drink for status (Musgrave et al., 1997), to fit in and be more attractive (Pedersen et al., 2007), social reasons (Carey 1993, Cooper, 1994, Cooper, Russel & Windle, 1992, Cronin, 1997), or just to get drunk (Wechsler et al., 1995), some student-athletes drink to deal with the sometimes intense stress of competing at the collegiate level (Stainback, 1997, Tricker, Cook & McGuire, 1989, as cited in Thombs, 2000). Another explanation suggests that "student-athletes drinking behavior is spurred by the same social influences that shape drinking among other groups of students such as fraternities and sororities" (Thombs, 2000). Wilson, Pritchard & Schaffer (2004) noted that "men athletes tended to drink for social reasons and to get high." In the study by Turrisi and colleagues (2006), "college women athletes and non-athletes, and men non-athletes tended to drink for coping reasons (they used alcohol to feel better), which was significantly related to greater quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption and incidence of drunkenness." For both non-athletes and student-athletes, research has documented that those with friends who drink are more likely to drink than those who don't have friends that drink (Duncan et al., 2005).
Student-Athletes vs. Non-athletes
"Half a century ago, the conventional notion on college campuses has been that student athletes, as a group, are at much less risk for alcohol abuse than the general student body" (Straus & Bacon, 1953, as cited in Thombs, 2000). Leichliter and colleagues (1998) also observed that "the common speculation was that student athletes tend to avoid alcohol or drink lightly to avoid compromising their physical conditioning" (Thombs, 2000). However, recent studies show that "athletes drink more frequently and consume greater quantities of alcohol than do non-athletes" (Blood, 1990, Leichliter et al., 1998, Nattiv, Puffer & Green, 1997, Wechsler et al., 1997, as cited in Wilson et al., 2004). With athletes consuming greater quantities of alcohol than non-athletes, research indicates that athletes also experience a higher rate of alcohol-related negative consequences compared with non-athletes (Turrisi et al., 2006).
College athletes are a "high-risk group for high-risk drinking on college campuses across the U.S. and the annual prevalence of alcohol use by intercollegiate athletes is about 80%" (Green, Uryasz, Petr & Bray, 2001, as cited in Brenner et al., 2007). "Previous research from 3 large multi-institutional studies indicate that college athletes are significantly more likely to have binge drank in the past 2 weeks than non-athletes, with approximately 60% of male and 50% of female college athletes self-reporting binge drinking behavior" (Leichliter et al., 1998, Nelson, 2001, Wechsler et al., 1997, as cited in Brenner et al., 2007). According to Wechsler et al. (2002), "these rates are higher than the national average of 44% of college students reporting binge drinking in the past two weeks" (Brenner et al., 2007). "Existing studies on athlete drinking tendencies show that, as athletic participation increases, so does alcohol consumption" (Leichliter et al., 1998, Meilman et al., 1998, Nattiv & Puffer, 1991, Wechsler et al., 1997, as cited in Turrisi et al., 2006). "For example, team leaders report higher levels of binge drinking than do other team members" (Leichliter et al., 1998, as cited in Ford, 2007). "Significantly, one recent study (Nelson & Wechsler, 2001) reported that male athletes are more likely to participate in the type of social environment conducive to binge drinking than are non-athletes" (Wilson et al., 2004). Student-athletes have been described as a "special population among college students. The dual role of student and athlete create a unique collegiate experience that place them at greater risk for substance use" (Wechsler, Davenport, Dowdall, Grossman & Zanakos, 1997, as cited in Ford, 2007). Some:
"researchers (Selby, Weinstein & Bird, 1990, Wechsler et al., 1997, Parham, 1993, Pinkerton, Hinz & Barow, 1989) point to a number of distinct concerns for college athletes: maintaining a high level of athletic performance while responding to stress; balancing academic and athletic interests; career concerns, including termination; social isolation; injuries as a major medical/psychological concern; managing success of the lack of success; and managing multiple relationships with coaches, teammates, family, friends and teachers" (Ford, 2007).
Although student-athletes are considered to be treated different than a non-athlete, evidence shows that this population has its negative sides to it as well. "Research shows that athletes drink more frequently and consume more drinks per occasion than do their non-athlete peers" (Hildebrand et al., 2001, Leichliter et al., 1998, Nattiv et al., 1991, Nelson et al., 2001, Selby et al., 1990, Wechsler, Fulop, Padilla, Lee & Patrick, 1997, as cited in Turrisi et al., 2006).
Research has also shown that student-athletes experience higher rates of alcohol-related consequences as compared with non-athletes. Specifically, Nattiv et al. (1991), "found significantly higher rates of intercollegiate athletes' driving while under the influence of alcohol and riding with intoxicated drivers. In addition, college athletes were reported as having more sexual partners and contracting more sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) than non-athletes" (Leichliter et al., 1998). Reasons for athletes contracting more STDs than non-athletes is because they "report a greater number of sexual partners along with less contraceptive use" (Brenner et al., 2007). Frinter and Robinson (1993) also "found that athletes perpetrated more sexual violence than did non-athletes. Male athletes made up less than 2% of the campus population at the large Midwestern university that Frinter and Robinson studied, but athletes were accused of involvement in 20% of the reported cases of sexual assault and attempted sexual assault, 14% of the cases of campus sexual abuse, and 11% of the battery cases (including charges of illegal restraint and intimidation)" (Leichliter et al., 1998). Brenner et al. (2007) also stated that athletes are at an "increased likelihood to be involved in physical fights than non-athletes". Evidence has shown that student-athletes report higher rates of alcohol related consequences such as DUI, unsafe sexual practices, and criminal behavior. However, "they also pose major problems for the integrity of college athletics, athletic department personnel, and health educators who work to reduce alcohol behaviors on campus" (Williams et al., 2006). A prime example of this was the Duke University incident with their Men's Lacrosse team. Their "season was cancelled and their coach resigned after an alcohol-fueled party on March 13, 2006, resulted in sexual assault and kidnapping charges against three players" ("Duke Lacrosse", 2006, as cited in Williams et al., 2006). In addition to these consequences, "athletes also risk loss of scholarship and public scrutiny because of their visible role within college communities, which has secondary effects on the image of the university itself" (Williams et al., 2006).
Conclusion
Binge drinking among college students evidently is very much a part of today's college life. Some people do it because it is fun and others do it as a way of coping with various stressors and issues going on in their lives. Unfortunately, alcohol consumption and the misuse of it is not only a major part of college life, but a major part in the lives of college athletes, as evidence has shown. An ill-fated statistic about alcohol and college athletes is that "from 1970-2005, at least one college athlete has suffered an alcohol-related death every year" (Nuwar, 2000, as cited in Williams et al., 2006). This is just the number of alcohol-related deaths relating to college athletes. One could only imagine the number of alcohol-related deaths relating the entire college population across the country.
