The purpose of this paper is to research a better understanding of police departments and their administrations. Many decisions and actions are based on local law enforcement facilities, their policies and procedures, as well as their employees. When many people think about a police department, they think about the patrol officers and base their judgment on personal experiences. Few people actually realize that there are administrators who govern the decisions that patrol officers, detectives, and other employees make.
Police Departments, Management, and Administration
The purpose of this paper is to research a better understanding of police departments and their administrations. Many decisions and actions are based on local law enforcement facilities, their policies and procedures, as well as their employees. When many people think about a police department, they think about the patrol officers and base their judgment on personal experiences. Few people actually realize that there are administrators who govern the decisions that patrol officers, detectives, and other employees make.
Every police department has a hierarchical structure; individuals who sit atop of this structure are the decisions makers. These individuals make many decisions that impact the work done by individuals who are at the bottom of the hierarchical structure. Some of the decisions that the administration decides on includes budgets, resource availability, training standards, hiring new employees, reprimanding and disciplining current employees, and the delegation of authority.
Literature Review
Maguire and Hassell (2003) provided readers with information regarding organizations and the constant changes that take place within. The authors conducted research regarding the most common types of change within police departments. Changes in culture, behavior, and structure were the most prevalent changes to take place within the police departments that were studies. According to Maguire and Hassell when changes take place within an organization, the entire structure changes as an effect. The authors suggested that when changes are needed, they should be planned for long-term, so that the system is not constantly changing.
Berg and Dean (2008) wrote about leadership by police managers. The authors reported that management within police departments need to stimulate and encourage knowledge in police investigations. Berg and Dean reported that the performance of ranked police officers are based solely on the management, therefore if performance in the police department is poor, managers are at fault. The authors reported that the recruitment process of administration and managers should be more stringent, so that only quality managers are hired.
Terpstra and Trommel (2009) completed research that focused on performance, management, and quality improvement within various companies and organizations. The researchers found that many problems that occur in the bulk of organizations and companies were due to lack of consistency within the management departments. Several employees that were surveyed reported inconsistencies between different managers, as well as policies and procedures.
Archbold (2005) explained the importance of risk managers within administration departments. The author provided readers with information about the roles, duties, and responsibilities of these managers. The author further reported that a risk manager creates more consistency within organizations, therefore other operations go more smoothly.
Densten (2003) examined the leadership of police officers in top levels or ranks in Australian police departments. Densten reported that senior officers should hold a unique set of leadership behaviors and resources. The author reported that it is very important for rank to be considered when choosing a senior manager, because this allows the person who is chosen to have the experience and wisdom necessary to perform the job.
Gaston and Lillian (1995) surveyed 128 officers from a large police force who had been promoted recently from constable to sergeant within police departments. The findings suggested that there is a need for greater collaboration between police and management. The authors reported that communication between ranked police officers, detectives, and administration would be beneficial for the police department, as well as the community. Results of the survey indicated that there were numerous problems within the police department due to lack of communication within the department.
Simmons (2008) quoted several state laws regarding police conduct and behavior. Simmons reported that state laws are supposed to keep unconstitutional conduct to a minimum, assist in reform, and generate greater cooperation within police departments. Simmons reported that if all police departments followed the laws that are set, there would be very little conflict. Simmons also reported that politics within government and police departments cause various problems between ranked officers and management.
Holian (2007) completed research regarding the management approach of various police departments. Holian believed that the market-based approach is the best type of management to be used in police departments. The author reported that the market-based approach is better and will enable police to apply recommendations easily. Holian reported that the reason the market-based management works better is that it enables organizations in reaching their long-term goals because it applies principles that allow a free society to prosper. Organizations that incorporate the market-based approach use very similar principles, rules, and culture as its employees.
Ede, Homel, and Prenzler (2002) inform readers about positive police management verses negative/apathetic police management. According to the authors it is very important to have positive police management and authority regarding discipline of employees. This helps to show the employees that they need to respond positively in situations, rather than negatively. The authors reported that positive leaders are more apt to investigate the situation to decide what may have stimulated the negative behavior.
Recasens (2000) provided readers with information about the rapid changes that take place inside the policing community. Recasens described the differences between micro level and macro level management. The author reported that the majority of police departments operate at a micro level, few operate at a macro level. Recasens informed readers about the positive and negative aspects micro and macro management. Recasens incorporated the micro and macro level dynamics into various theories to provide readers with a better understanding.
Discussion
In every police department there exists a chain of command. Most of the departments contain the similar hierarchical structure chain of command, very few are different. The main difference is that the hierarchical structures for some departments are larger than others. The basic components of the hierarchy are top managers, middle managers, lower managers, and ranked positions, in that order. The top managers or administrators hold the job of making and changing policies, setting measurable goals for the department, creating and maintain a yearly budget, and delegating authority to middle managers. Below the top managers are the middle managers are in charge of developing plans to assist in making decisions that ultimately are handed down by the top managers and administrators. Beneath the middle managers are the lower managers. Lower managers implement the decisions that are made by the higher managers and administrators. Lower managers are also in charge of providing direct supervision to individuals who hold ranked positions, as well as civilians. Individuals who are employed as ranked officers or civilians are in charge of completing tasks that have been delegated to them by administrators and managers (Densten, 2003).
Two Types of Structural Designs
Hierarchical structures are made up of one of two types of structures, the flat structure or the tall structure. The flat structure type is used in organizations and agencies where there are several employees managed by each supervisor or managers. When the flat structure is used there are very few hierarchical levels; employees also operate more independently due to lack of time with their supervisor. The tall structure type is used in organizations and agencies where there are a fewer number of employees managed by each supervisor. When the tall structure is used there are many more hierarchical levels; employees have more time to spend with their supervisor, therefore they are monitored more closely. In organizations that utilize the tall structure decisions are centralized and are left to the top managers in the hierarchy. Organizations that utilize the flat structure are decentralized and many decisions are left to lower managers and ranked officers in the hierarchy. Many studies that have been completed indicate that employees who work in a flat structure are more satisfied with their jobs, this is because flat structures are run as a democracy and tall structures are run as a bureaucracy. The decision to operate a flat or tall structure is generally left to each individual community and what they believe is the best approach (Recasens, 2000)
Police Department and Structural History
Police departments are very similar to many other organizations, as they have historically used many different types of methods and approaches in order to operation. The first recorded type of management to be used within police departments was known as the classical approach. Organizations that utilize the classical approach are run very similar to a bureaucracy and more than likely have a tall hierarchical structure than is ran very stringently. The classical approach demands an authoritarian leadership style by management where control is maintained by the top levels of the hierarchy and decisions are made by the book so to speak. The basic principles for the classical approach are specialization, responsibility, authority, strong discipline by administration, and centralization. Employees who are employed in an organization which utilizes the classical approach are expected to be very responsible and work independently, because direct supervision is rarely provided (Ede, Homel, and Prenzler, 2002).
Many of the early police departments were ran very similar to the military; therefore theorists and administrators strongly supported the classical approach principles that were also used in the military. Theorists believed that because the military was so successful, if police departments were ran the same way, they too would be successful. As time went by it was witnessed by many researchers that the classical approach was not the best approach for police departments and other law enforcement organizations. By the late 1950s most of the police departments had made a transition, they started abiding by the paramilitary model. The paramilitary model maintained many of the classical principles, but also believed if behavior by police officers was controlled; the end result would be more containable crime control and less police corruption. There were many different reasons for the transition from the classical approach to the paramilitary approach, but theorists argued the main reason was so politics within police departments would be eliminated (Maguire & Hassell, 2003).
During the early 1960s information began to be collected by researchers, these studies concerned the work that police officers were participating in. The results indicated that many officers were not actually enforcing the law, but were serving as a social worker to multiple families within the community. Although this work was seen as positive characteristic by the community, administrators and city officials felt that this was unacceptable, because the officers were not doing the job that they were hired to do (Maguire & Hassell, 2003).
In between the late 1960s and the early 1970s new theories were steadily developing. Researchers and theorists no longer believed that the classical and paramilitary approaches were no longer seen as the best way to enforce crime. This information had been indicated in many community and behavioral research studies. Research professionals reported that the two approaches were unproductive. Many communities, as well as the law enforcement officials were not pleased with the organizational bureaucracies, therefore reporting that this caused more crime by the community and less action by police officials (Holian, 2007).
As a result of the new research developments, many theorists suggested that police departments nationwide start different management techniques, preferably something of a democratic nature. Many of the studies had indicated that job satisfaction was very important for carrying out important tasks; if police officers were not satisfied with their job they are less likely to perform in a positive nature. Researchers felt that if the management techniques were altered, employees would be much happier and perform their jobs better. Employee�s opinions that operated on the bottom level of the hierarchy were not being taken seriously by administrators, but should be held in high regard. All of the information yielded by the researchers was taken into account, thus creating the behavioral police management approach (Holian, 2007).
By the early 1980s many police departments across the United States chose to reform again. The new reform system within the police departments included the contingency and systems theory. Communication gaps have always been a massive problem within many organizations, especially ones that operate as a bureaucracy. The idea behind the systems theory is that each system is not only its own unique system, but is part of a larger system. Therefore, the decisions and choices that are made within one system affect all other systems that it is connected with. Decisions should not be made hastily; the impact and input of all other systems should be weighed before decisions are made. The contingency theory interconnects with the systems theory; this is because the contingency theory requires the use of open-systems seen in democracies, rather than the closed-systems that are often seen throughout bureaucracies. When the systems and contingency theories are combined together they allow all systems to communicate with each other. The open-communication that is a result of both systems helps to assist various communities and organizations to reach common goals (Simmons, 2008).
Throughout history there have been many different theories that have been used regarding law enforcement. During the early 1980s the broken-windows theory was developed and began to be used in some of the smaller policing communities. The broken-windows theory believed that if each crime committed was strongly prosecuted, there would be less crime. Many police officers and prosecutors have been guilty of allowing many small crimes go uncharged and unprosecuted, in exchange for information regarding larger crimes, etc. Theorists believed that more crimes were being committed because of the lack of punishment. The theory thrives on the idea that order must be kept in the community, if is not reached and maintained it allows precedence for chaos and delinquency to be set. This theory incorporated a zero-tolerance policy that included crimes committed by police officers, prosecutors, and other government officials that are often overlooked because of their position. The broken-windows theory helped to make the legal system more equal for everybody (Simmons, 2009).
Issues in Administration
Within every organization, there will always be some type of conflict or management issues that need addressed. Utilizing different organizational designs can help to control some of the problems that will inevitably arise. The organizational design that will be used within the organization is often decided by members of management and/or board members. The organizational design that is used has a significant impact on both managers and employees who work there; it can also impact the community it serves (Berg & Dean, 2008).
According to Berg and Dean, the main difference between different police departments and their choice of organizational design is that some communities show interest in the public opinion, others do not. Communities that heed advice from the population that it serves are more likely to be prosperous than the communities who choose to show no interest in public opinion. Berg and Dean studied several police departments in various countries. According to the research information that was gathered, small police departments are much more likely to be successful in their mission than larger departments. The reasoning is because of the intimate relationships that exist within small cities and towns. Police departments in smaller communities may also have a more flexible hierarchical structure. Berg and Dean reported that lack of communication and information sharing are the two biggest problems that initiate conflict within an organization (2008).
Ranked police officers are often unsatisfied by their lack of input in the decision making process within police departments. More often than not, decisions that impact the work of ranked police officers, as well as the community are made by administrators without the input of lower ranked officers. Administrators are not actively involved in the work that is completed by ranked officers; therefore many decisions are made by using statics that have been gathered rather than first hand information. Ranked officers often report that they spend hours completing tasks that they have been assigned by administrators, when they could be completing other useful tasks that they believe make a difference. This may not be a problem in police departments who welcome the input of all employees (Recasens, 2000).
Budgeting continues to be an ongoing problem within police departments. There is a set amount of money that is available for the entire department; it is left to the administrators to decide how much of the money is given to each unit. Each unit serves a different purpose and has different needs from the other units that it is surrounded by. Often police departments base each units budget on the previous year�s statistics, without consulting with each unit individually. This is where one of the previously stated problems, lack of communication, can cause many problems. Society has trends that come and go; where drugs may have been the largest problem last year, homicides may currently be the largest problem. If there is little to no communication between the hierarchical levels regarding the budget, more funding may be rewarded to the drug unit when it needs to go to the homicide department because the statistics indicated that the major problem was drug trafficking. Recently many researchers have started advocating for open-system democracies, rather than closed-system bureaucracies (Recasens, 2000).
Conclusion
In summary, police departments are ran in many different ways; policies and procedures vary from place to place, depending on the location and personnel. There are multiple structures that can be utilized within police departments. Throughout history there have been multiple theories used to conduct police business, some have been seen as positive and others have been viewed negatively. There has been multiple reforms take place since the early 1900s, police departments appear to be constantly changing. Many problems have been resolved through structural and policy changes. As stated before, there will always be some problems and issues when dealing with an organization, because they are so complex. However, it appears that progress has been steady and positive since the turn of the century.
