First published in 1991, Jung Chang's Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China follows the lives of three generations of women against the backdrop of China's political turmoil over the course of the twentieth century. Chang's history begins with the story of her grandmother who became concubine to a warlord general at the age of fifteen, traces her mother's rise within the Communist Party and subsequent persecution under Mao Zedong, and finally describes Chang's own experiences of fear and confusion during the Cultural Revolution. The power of the book lies in its ability to provide a very human account of the chaos and upheaval that the whole country was experiencing at the time.
A fascinating aspect of China's political history is the drastic change in leadership and ideology that occurred during the seventy five years that Chang's book encompasses. One especially significant section of the book follows Mao Zedong's comeback after the famine that gripped the country between 1958 and 1962, due in large part to Mao's own policies on agriculture. In Chapters Fourteen through Seventeen, Chang illustrate the techniques Mao employed to reestablish power during what became known as the Cultural Revolution. Throughout Mao's periods of leadership the features of a totalitarian government are clearly illustrated. In particular, his command and manipulation of communications guaranteed his powerful grip on the nation.
Part One - Chapter Summaries
Chapter Fourteen, "Father is Close, Mother is Close, but neither is as Close as Chairman Mao" - The Cult of Mao (1964-1965), illustrates how Mao began to gain control over the people of China. At the age of twelve, the author, like all of her classmates, religiously followed the example of soldier Lei Feng, who died at the age of 22 while devoting his life to the service of others. His personal diary, filled with devotions to Mao, became the guiding force for the young in China. Good deeds did not extend to everyone, however, especially those who were considered to be "class enemies," whoever they might be. Eventually, the desire to please by doing good deeds became the need to please by devoting oneself to Chairman Mao. The routines of daily life began to change, and the beginnings of totalitarian rule could be seen. Chang's memories centre mainly on conservative codes of fashion, the creation of committees to supervise the lives of adults, and the removal of gardens and grass that to Mao symbolized bourgeois habits. Authorities arranged for speakers to share their horrific experiences under the Kuomintang, and their gratitude to Mao for saving their lives. They ate "bitterness meals" at the school canteen so they could understand the suffering their elders had endured. Mao encouraged tours of "museums of class education," mansions of former landlords who had persecuted and abused the peasants that rented their land. Mao's teachings became part of the curriculum. For the first time at her prestigious school, marks and family background were considered equally for entrance. The colour bright red was synonymous with Communism, and when Chang realized that the expression "faded red" had the same sound as her name she begged her father to let her change it. By the end of the year, Chang felt she was completely devoted to Chairman Mao and his world revolution.
In Chapter Fifteen, "Destroy First, and Construction Will Look after itself" - The Cultural Revolution Begins (1965 - 1966), Chang describes the paranoia that was beginning to overcome Mao and his closest advisors. Mao was concerned that plays and operas were being used as a means to voice opposition, including "Ghost Dramas" and "Dramas of the Ming Mandarin" which had recently experienced a surge in popularity. In both cases, Mao believed the content and characters appeared as a thinly veiled criticism of himself and of his policies. Mao attempted to have them banned, but his concerns were ignored. Behind the scenes, Mao created a new enemy - artists, writers and scholars. He gave instructions to Party officials to search out and denounce these individuals, but few, such as Chang's mother, followed this order. When he wrote an article condemning the Ming Mandarin plays and demanded it be published in the newspapers, again Party officials declined to follow orders. Fearful he was losing control, Mao began to take on a more visible role. Those he could not trust became known as "capitalist roaders" and needed to be destroyed. He created a new chain of command that would overthrow the leadership of the Communist Party in China, and establish him as the sole authority, seeing this as the only way to test the loyalty of those he doubted. Mao took over the media and began to dictate what information would be released to the public. Students were instructed to memorize Mao's teachings which were published in "The Little Red Book." Teachers turned on teachers in an effort to prove loyalty and improve status. Denunciation posters were pasted on school walls. An air of suspicion and fear hung over the school as the victimization worsened, and Chang noted that "a sense of unpredictable danger haunted me."
In Chapter Sixteen, "Soar to Heaven, and Pierce the Earth" - Mao's Red Guards (June - August 1966), Chang's fears are justified. Students connected to a university in Peking, swept up by Mao's rhetoric, organized themselves into a fiercely loyal group and took the name "Red Guards of Chairman Mao." Mao, who wrote a letter of support triggering the creation of Red Guard groups throughout the country, planned to use the Red Guard as a means to enforce his "rebellion against reactionaries." He knew that impressionable youth would make perfect militant terrorists. The first targets became teachers who were seen as symbols of authority in opposition to Mao. They were beaten and subjected to humiliation tactics such as partially shaved heads. Soon the violence spread to all representatives of the "four olds" - ideas, culture, customs and habits. While the Red Guards in her county of Sichuan copied the Red Guards of Peking in thought, their actions were much more controlled. For the most part, political action involved changing street names and redirecting traffic from right to left to appear more revolutionary. Chang experienced profound guilt since her natural inclination was to avoid conflict, a behaviour that was in direct opposition to Mao's teachings. Although she adapted more "proletarian" clothing, and wore her hair in uniform braids, she could not bring herself to cut her hair until she became fearful of her critical classmates. Her discomfort was further emphasized during the mission of her local Red Guards to close down a teahouse - a symbol of leisure. For the first time, Chang became aware of the power of the Red Guard, as adult customers who would have normally inspired respect walked away quietly. One especially difficult moment for the author was attending her first denunciation meeting, where teachers were beaten and "jet-planed" into submission, a tactic that escalated into death at less respectable schools. Despite her obvious discomfort, Chang was spared from punishment because of her family background. She belonged to the prestigious "red" category, instead of the "black" (bad) or "grey" (ambiguous) categories. Students who had been friends now turned on each other according to their classification. The chapter ends with the attempted suicide of one of Chang's classmates who could no longer tolerate the abuse to which she was subjected.
Chapter Seventeen, "Do You Want Our Children to Become 'Blacks'?" - My Parents' Dilemma (August-October 1966), describes in greater detail the impact that the early years of the Cultural Revolution had on Chang and her immediate family. Chang's father, confused and conflicted by the path of the Cultural Revolution, felt it necessary to voice his concerns to the new Party leadership. Her mother knew that to do so would most certainly bring shame and hardship to the entire family. Chang's father was seen as a man of principles, and a danger to Mao's political plans. While her father composed his letter of concern, senior Party officials plotted to remove him from power. He was taken into custody for his own "protection." Chang's mother immediately travelled to Peking, and took his letter to the Grievance Office. Even when the Vice-Premier agreed to the release of her husband, she remained in Peking to apply pressure until the instructions of the Vice-Premier were carried out. Local officials continued to stall, and informed her mother that her father required medical attention which he would not receive until she returned home. Because Chang was conflicted by the tactics of the Red Guard, she began working in the reception office where she could avoid conflict. One evening, a woman came to the reception office to report a neighbor who had hidden a portrait of Chiang Kai-shek in her apartment. Unwillingly, Chang was swept into the raid and forced to watch as the accused woman was subjected to a severe beating. When Chang attempted to intervene she was threatened by the fanatical tormentor. Making eye contact with the accuser, Chang realized that the entire beating was based on a fabrication, and that the accuser had used the Red Guard to settle a score with the victim. Chang's innocent eyes had been brutally opened.
Part Two - Totalitarian Features
Chang's personal story vividly reveals the totalitarian nature of Mao's rule in China. Dickerson's eight features most definitely apply, but in Chang's account of Mao's rise to power one feature figures prominently: Control of Communications. This tactic is used in a totalitarian state to manipulate the people of a country through indoctrination. Mao's own insecurities led him to dictate what the people of China would hear, read or learn so that "dissenting opinions could only circulate by word of mouth." Mao's Red Guards were in place to ensure that opposition was never voiced.
A totalitarian state controls communication in order to "monopolize the flow of ideas." It was Mao's plan to control the thoughts and ideas of his people. It appeared that "total lack of access to information and the systemic feeding of disinformation meant that most Chinese had no way to discriminate between Mao's successes and failures." Within the education system, schools were instructed to hold regular sessions called "recalling bitterness and reflecting on happiness" where members of the older generation would share their stories of persecution under the Kuomintang until they rescued by Mao. These stories created a sense of resentment towards former leaders and intense feelings of gratitude for Mao. Eventually, Mao transformed the schools into training grounds for his doctrine and policies. Regular curriculum was replaced with morning assemblies that focused on Mao's teachings. Textbooks were less about content and more about propaganda. Politics became a new subject in the curriculum in order to further indoctrinate the students who were expected to become familiar with Party documents. Every student was given a copy of his most famous quotations in a small plastic portfolio called "The Little Red Book" which they were expected to commit to memory.
Control of information was not limited to the school system. During the Cultural Revolution Mao's use of propaganda escalated. Angered by Party officials who refused to publish his venomous and unsubstantiated attacks, Mao soon realized that he would have to take over all major news publications to gain full control over what information was given to the masses, and to justify his doctrine. Mao used the People's Daily to publish editorials asserting his authority and condemning those who opposed him. Uncertain as to whom the enemy actually was, many Party officials felt "apprehension and bewilderment" in the face of these vague attacks. As Mao became more confident of his power and his role as supreme authority, his decrees and publications became less subtle. Roderick MacFarquhar's observes in his article, "Mao's Last Revolution" that Mao made heavy use of two Party publications - the Liberation Army Daily and the Red Flag to encourage the persecution of those who did not fall in line with his policy. The Daily "made most of the attacks and supplied much of the venom, while Red Flag magisterially directed the pursuers towards the principal victims." Mao encouraged the use of denunciation posters and slogans to publically condemn his opponents. Announcements were broadcast daily over loudspeakers praising Mao and spreading his message to punish the class enemies and destroy the four olds - thinking, culture, customs and habits. Propaganda posters "were to dramatize and venerate Mao and minimize the role of most other communist leaders" further securing Mao's control.
In a totalitarian state, maintaining control over the people requires maintaining control over the information they are given and what they are allowed to believe and think. In order to establish power, and in the face of his own personal insecurities, Mao Zedong necessarily adopted a policy of propaganda and communication control that limited knowledge and promoted suspicion and fear. By destroying what was familiar, he was then able to construct and promote a new reality through his power over the media. As a result, he created a country that was told what to think and believe and how to act. Jung Chang's Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China reveals the extent of that control over her generation. His "vague, high-flown rhetoric carried openly in the press" shaped and manipulated an entire nation's consciousness.
